The Dunce Cap: Why America Deserves the Stool in the Corner

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A dunce cap, also known as a dunce hat, dunces cap or dunces hat, is a pointed hat. In popular culture, it is made of paper and often marked with a D or the word dunce. Frequently the dunce was made to stand in the corner, facing the wall, the hope was that no one would want to be labelled the dunce in the class, even for a short period of time, and would thus avoid misbehaviour.

Examples of behaviour which could warrant the dunce cap included throwing spitballs, passing notes, class clowns were frequently admonished with the dunce cap. In modern pedagogy, dunce caps are extremely rare, according to The Straight Dope, Duns Scotus recommended the wearing of conical hats to stimulate the brain — so-called thinking caps. However, the Oxford English Dictionary records that the dunce cap itself did not enter the English language until after the term dunce had become a synonym for fool or dimwit.

In fact, dunce cap is not recorded before the novel The Old Curiosity Shop by Charles Dickens, John Fords play The Suns Darling is the first recorded mention of the related term dunce table, a table provided for duller or poorer students. A literary dunce is a person, either real or fictional and this usage of the term derives from Alexander Popes landmark poetic satire The Dunciad, and the list is for figures used as dunces by eighteenth-century British satire. It is also for early nineteenth-century authors who used the same general terminology, dunces are not villains, although they can be villainous, as much as they are held up as the epitome of stupidity, imposture, and connivance.

Inclusion in the list below does not imply that the figure was a dullard, in fact, the opposite is likely true, as these figures needed to rise to a position of importance to be satirized in this way. Instead, these are figures who were satirized particularly as symbols of all wrong with society or a particular political position. Franciscans — The Franciscans are a group of related mendicant religious orders within the Catholic Church, founded in by Francis of Assisi.

These orders include the Order of Friars Minor, the Order of Saint Clare, Francis began preaching around and traveled to Rome to seek approval from the Pope in The original Rule of Saint Francis approved by the Pope disallowed ownership of property, the austerity was meant to emulate the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. Franciscans traveled and preached in the streets, while boarding in church properties, Saint Clare, under Franciss guidance, founded the Poor Clares in , which remains a Second Order of the Franciscans.

The extreme poverty required of members was relaxed in final revision of the Rule in , the degree of observance required of members remained a major source of conflict within the order, resulting in numerous secessions. The latter two, the Capuchin and Conventual, remain distinct religious institutes within the Catholic Church, observing the Rule of Saint Francis with different emphases, Franciscans are sometimes referred to as minorites or greyfriars because of their habit. In Poland and Lithuania they are known as Bernardines, after Bernardino of Siena, the name of original order, Friars Minor, means lesser brothers, and stems from Francis of Assisis rejection of extravagance.

Francis was the son of a cloth merchant, but gave up his wealth to pursue his faith more fully. Francis adopted of the tunic worn by peasants as the religious habit for his order. Those who joined him became the original Order of Friars Minor and they all live according to a body of regulations known as the Rule of St Francis. First Order The First Order or the Order of Friars Minor are commonly called simply the Franciscans and this Order is a mendicant religious order of men, some of whom trace their origin to Francis of Assisi.

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Francis thus referred to his followers as Fraticelli, meaning Little Brothers. Franciscan brothers are informally called friars or the Minorites and they all live according to a body of regulations known as the Rule of St Francis. The order is called the Order of St. He was an influential philosopher, theologian, and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known as the Doctor Angelicus.

The name Aquinas identifies his ancestral origins in the county of Aquino in present-day Lazio and he was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology and the father of Thomism, of which he argued that reason is found in God. His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy developed or opposed his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, the works for which he is best known are the Summa Theologiae and the Summa contra Gentiles. His commentaries on Scripture and on Aristotle form an important part of his body of work, furthermore, Thomas is distinguished for his eucharistic hymns, which form a part of the Churchs liturgy.

Acquired new luster when the Church declared the teaching of Thomas to be her own and that Doctor, honored with the praises of the Pontiffs. The English philosopher Anthony Kenny considers Aquinas to be one of the dozen greatest philosophers of the western world, Thomas was most probably born in the castle of Roccasecca, located in Aquino, old county of the Kingdom of Sicily, c. According to some authors, he was born in the castle of his father, though he did not belong to the most powerful branch of the family, Landulf of Aquino was a man of means.

Landulfs brother Sinibald was abbot of the first Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino and it was here that Thomas was probably introduced to Aristotle, Averroes and Maimonides, all of whom would influence his theological philosophy. There his teacher in arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music was Petrus de Ibernia, at the age of nineteen Thomas resolved to join the recently founded Dominican Order. Thomass change of heart did not please his family, in an attempt to prevent Theodoras interference in Thomass choice, the Dominicans arranged to move Thomas to Rome, and from Rome, to Paris.

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Political concerns prevented the Pope from ordering Thomass release, which had the effect of extending Thomass detention, Thomas passed this time of trial tutoring his sisters and communicating with members of the Dominican Order. Family members became desperate to dissuade Thomas, who remained determined to join the Dominicans, at one point, two of his brothers resorted to the measure of hiring a prostitute to seduce him.

According to legend Thomas drove her away wielding a fire iron and that night two angels appeared to him as he slept and strengthened his determination to remain celibate. By , seeing all of her attempts to dissuade Thomas had failed, Theodora sought to save the familys dignity. In her mind, an escape from detention was less damaging than an open surrender to the Dominicans. William of Ockham — William of Ockham was an English Franciscan friar and scholastic philosopher and theologian, who is believed to have been born in Ockham, a small village in Surrey.

He is considered to be one of the figures of medieval thought and was at the centre of the major intellectual and political controversies of the fourteenth century. He is commonly known for Occams razor, the principle that bears his name, and also produced significant works on logic, physics. In the Church of England, his day of commemoration is 10 April, William of Ockham was born in Ockham, Surrey in and joined the Franciscan order at an early age. It is believed that he studied theology at the University of Oxford from to , because of this, he acquired the honorific title Venerabilis Inceptor, or Venerable Beginner.

William of Ockham was among these scholarly commentators, however, Ockhams commentary was not well received by his colleagues, or by the Church authorities. In , his commentary was condemned as unorthodox by a synod of bishops and it is generally believed that these charges were levied by Oxford chancellor John Lutterell. A theological commission had been asked to review his Commentary on the Sentences, Michael of Cesena had asked Ockham to review arguments surrounding Apostolic poverty. The Franciscans believed that Jesus and his apostles owned no property either individually or in common, and this brought them into conflict with Pope John XXII.

After studying the works of John XXII and previous papal statements, in return for protection and patronage Ockham wrote treatises that argued for emperor Louis to have supreme control over church and state in the Holy Roman Empire. However it should be noted that Ockhams philosophy was never officially condemned as heretical and he spent much of the remainder of his life writing about political issues, including the relative authority and rights of the spiritual and temporal powers.

Ockham died on 9 April and he was officially rehabilitated by Innocent VI in William of Ockham believed only faith gives us access to theological truths, Ockhams theism was based solely on private revelation and faith. He believed that science was a matter of discovery and saw God as the ontological necessity.

His importance is as a theologian with a strongly developed interest in logical method, in scholasticism, Ockham advocated reform in both method and content, the aim of which was simplification. The High Middle Ages were preceded by the Early Middle Ages and followed by the Late Middle Ages, by the robust population increase greatly benefited the European economy, reaching levels that would not be seen again in some areas until the 19th century.

This trend was checked in the Late Middle Ages by a series of calamities, notably the Black Death but also including numerous wars, from about the year onwards, Europe saw the last of the barbarian invasions and became more socially and politically organized. The Carolingian Renaissance led to scientific and philosophical revival of Europe, the first universities were established in Bologna, Paris, Oxford and Modena. The Vikings had settled in the British Isles, France and elsewhere, the Magyars had ceased their expansion in the 10th century, and by the year , a Christian Kingdom of Hungary was recognized in Central Europe, forming alliances with regional powers.

With the brief exception of the Mongol invasions in the 13th century, in the 11th century, populations north of the Alps began to settle new lands, some of which had reverted to wilderness after the end of the Roman Empire.

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In what is known as the clearances, vast forests. At the same time settlements moved beyond the boundaries of the Frankish Empire to new frontiers in Europe, beyond the Elbe River. The High Middle Ages produced many different forms of intellectual, spiritual, the rediscovery of the works of Aristotle led Thomas Aquinas and other thinkers of the period to develop Scholasticism, a combination of Catholicism and ancient philosophy.

For much of the time period Constantinople remained Europes most populous city, in architecture, many of the most notable Gothic cathedrals were built or completed during this era. The Crisis of the Late Middle Ages, beginning at the start of the 14th century, in England, the Norman Conquest of resulted in a kingdom ruled by a Francophone nobility. The Normans invaded Ireland by force in and soon established throughout most of the country.

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Likewise, Scotland and Wales were subdued to vassalage at about the same time, the Exchequer was founded in the 12th century under King Henry I, and the first parliaments were convened. In , after the loss of Normandy, King John signed the Magna Carta into law, from the mid-tenth to the midth centuries, the Scandinavian kingdoms were unified and Christianized, resulting in an end of Viking raids, and greater involvement in European politics. King Cnut of Denmark ruled over both England and Norway, after Cnuts death in , England and Norway were lost, and with the defeat of Valdemar II in , Danish predominance in the region came to an end.

Meanwhile, Norway extended its Atlantic possessions, ranging from Greenland to the Isle of Man, while Sweden, under Birger Jarl, however, the Norwegian influence started to decline already in the same period, marked by the Treaty of Perth of Also, civil wars raged in Norway between and , by the time of the High Middle Ages, the Carolingian Empire had been divided and replaced by separate successor kingdoms called France and Germany, although not with their modern boundaries.

Germany was under the banner of the Holy Roman Empire, which reached its mark of unity. He upheld the Churchs teachings on such matters as artificial contraception and the ordination of women and he was one of the most travelled world leaders in history, visiting countries during his pontificate. By the time of his death, he had named most of the College of Cardinals, consecrated or co-consecrated a large number of the worlds bishops, a key goal of his papacy was to transform and reposition the Catholic Church.

His wish was to place his Church at the heart of a new alliance that would bring together Jews, Muslims. He was the second longest-serving pope in history after Pope Pius IX. Edmunds work as a physician led to his death from scarlet fever. I remember that at least a third of my classmates at school in Wadowice were Jews. Renaissance — The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe.

This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century.

Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period.

Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance.

Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe.

One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant.

Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history. Reformation — The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther.

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The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements.

The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century.

The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope.

Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct.

Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in , the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism.

Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration — first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds.

It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable. Protestantism — Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical.

Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist.

The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism.

Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD.

In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans.

Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For the topological space, see Dunce hat topology. Oxford University Press, June Hats and Headwear around the World: Retrieved 1 September Retrieved April 6, America, and the Americans.

Retrieved from " https: Students Pejorative terms for people. The pain results from the progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves warning that the stimulation is harmful, sensitisation is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism 2. His work formed the basis of the commentaries that followed 3.

Modern Western universities evolved from the institutions and cathedral schools of Western Europe during the High Middle Ages 4. A reportatio is a student report or transcription of the lecture of a master 6. The schema can further be condensed into the formula A, where the letter A indicates the judgement all - are -, the importance of form was recognised from ancient times 7.

Socrates was an influential philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no wisdom but was a pursuer of wisdom 8. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter 9.

The latters work on Scotist theology was so notorious that it was burned by Martin Luther The writings of Dante, and particularly the doctrines of Petrarch and humanists like Machiavelli, emphasized the virtues of intellectual freedom, in the essays of Montaigne the individualistic view of life received perhaps the most persuasive and eloquent statement in the history of literature and philosophy For example, witch and which are homophones in most accents, homographs are words that have the same spelling, but have different pronunciations During this time, Johnson started to exhibit the tics that would influence how people viewed him in his years Instead, these are figures who were satirized particularly as symbols of all wrong with society or a particular political position In her mind, an escape from detention was less damaging than an open surrender to the Dominicans His importance is as a theologian with a strongly developed interest in logical method, in scholasticism, Ockham advocated reform in both method and content, the aim of which was simplification Germany was under the banner of the Holy Roman Empire, which reached its mark of unity I remember that at least a third of my classmates at school in Wadowice were Jews Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable Theology [videos] Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine.

Augustine of Hippo — , Latin theologian. His writing on free will and original sin remains influential in Western Christendom. Thomas Aquinas was the greatest Christian theologian of the Middle Ages. Sculpture of the Jewish theologian Maimonides. John Duns, commonly called Duns Scotus c. It reads Explicit Scriptum super Primum Sententiarum: The School of Athens by Raphael , depicting famous classical Greek philosophers in an idealized setting inspired by ancient Greek architecture. Bust of Socrates in the Vatican Museum. Avicenna Portrait on Silver Vase, Iran. Graduation ceremony on Convocation day at the University of Oxford.

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