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Cromwell fought at the head of his troops in the battle and was slightly wounded in the neck, stepping away briefly to receive treatment during the battle but returning to help force the victory. Marston Moor secured the north of England for the Parliamentarians, but failed to end Royalist resistance. The indecisive outcome of the Second Battle of Newbury in October meant that by the end of the war still showed no signs of ending. Cromwell's experience at Newbury, where Manchester had let the King's army slip out of an encircling manoeuvre, led to a serious dispute with Manchester, whom he believed to be less than enthusiastic in his conduct of the war.
Manchester later accused Cromwell of recruiting men of "low birth" as officers in the army, to which he replied: I would rather have a plain russet-coated captain who knows what he fights for and loves what he knows than that which you call a gentleman and is nothing else". Partly in response to the failure to capitalise on their victory at Marston Moor, Parliament passed the Self-Denying Ordinance in early This forced members of the House of Commons and the Lords , such as Manchester , to choose between civil office and military command.
All of them—except Cromwell, whose commission was given continued extensions and was allowed to remain in parliament—chose to renounce their military positions. The Ordinance also decreed that the army be "remodelled" on a national basis, replacing the old county associations; Cromwell contributed significantly to these military reforms. Cromwell led his wing with great success at Naseby, again routing the Royalist cavalry. At the Battle of Langport on 10 July, Cromwell participated in the defeat of the last sizeable Royalist field army.
Naseby and Langport effectively ended the King's hopes of victory, and the subsequent Parliamentarian campaigns involved taking the remaining fortified Royalist positions in the west of England. In October , Cromwell besieged and took the wealthy and formidable Catholic fortress Basing House , later to be accused of killing of its man Royalist garrison after its surrender.
Cromwell and Fairfax took the formal surrender of the Royalists at Oxford in June Cromwell had no formal training in military tactics, and followed the common practice of ranging his cavalry in three ranks and pressing forward, relying on impact rather than firepower. His strengths were an instinctive ability to lead and train his men, and his moral authority. In a war fought mostly by amateurs, these strengths were significant and are likely to have contributed to the discipline of his cavalry. Cromwell introduced close-order cavalry formations, with troopers riding knee to knee; this was an innovation in England at the time, and was a major factor in his success.
He kept his troops close together following skirmishes where they had gained superiority, rather than allowing them to chase opponents off the battlefield. This facilitated further engagements in short order, which allowed greater intensity and quick reaction to battle developments. This style of command was decisive at both Marston Moor and Naseby. In February Cromwell suffered from an illness that kept him out of political life for over a month.
By the time he had recovered, the Parliamentarians were split over the issue of the King. A majority in both Houses pushed for a settlement that would pay off the Scottish army, disband much of the New Model Army, and restore Charles I in return for a Presbyterian settlement of the Church. Cromwell rejected the Scottish model of Presbyterianism, which threatened to replace one authoritarian hierarchy with another.
The New Model Army, radicalised by the failure of the Parliament to pay the wages it was owed, petitioned against these changes, but the Commons declared the petition unlawful. In May Cromwell was sent to the army's headquarters in Saffron Walden to negotiate with them, but failed to agree. With the King now present, Cromwell was eager to find out what conditions the King would acquiesce to if his authority was restored.
The King appeared to be willing to compromise, so Cromwell employed his son-in-law, Henry Ireton, to draw up proposals for a constitutional settlement.
Proposals were drafted multiple times with different changes until finally the " Heads of Proposals " pleased Cromwell in principle and would allow for further negotiations. Many in the army, such as the Levellers led by John Lilburne , thought this was not enough and demanded full political equality for all men, leading to tense debates in Putney during the autumn of between Fairfax, Cromwell and Ireton on the one hand, and radical Levellers like Colonel Rainsborough on the other. The Putney Debates ultimately broke up without reaching a resolution.
The failure to conclude a political agreement with the King led eventually to the outbreak of the Second English Civil War in , when the King tried to regain power by force of arms. Cromwell first put down a Royalist uprising in south Wales led by Rowland Laugharne , winning back Chepstow Castle on 25 May and six days later forcing the surrender of Tenby. The castle at Carmarthen was destroyed by burning. The much stronger castle at Pembroke , however, fell only after a siege of eight weeks.
Cromwell dealt leniently with the ex-royalist soldiers, but less so with those who had previously been members of the parliamentary army, John Poyer eventually being executed in London after the drawing of lots. Cromwell then marched north to deal with a pro-Royalist Scottish army the Engagers who had invaded England. At Preston , Cromwell, in sole command for the first time and with an army of 9,, won a decisive victory against an army twice as large. During , Cromwell's letters and speeches started to become heavily based on biblical imagery, many of them meditations on the meaning of particular passages.
For example, after the battle of Preston, study of Psalms 17 and led him to tell Parliament that "they that are implacable and will not leave troubling the land may be speedily destroyed out of the land". A letter to Oliver St John in September urged him to read Isaiah 8, in which the kingdom falls and only the godly survive. On four occasions in letters in he referred to the story of Gideon 's defeat of the Midianites at Ain Harod. For Cromwell, the army was now God's chosen instrument. Cromwell believed, during the Civil Wars, that he was one of these people, and he interpreted victories as indications of God's approval of his actions, and defeats as signs that God was directing him in another direction.
In December , in an episode that became known as Pride's Purge , a troop of soldiers headed by Colonel Thomas Pride forcibly removed from the Long Parliament all those who were not supporters of the Grandees in the New Model Army and the Independents. Cromwell was still in the north of England, dealing with Royalist resistance, when these events took place, but then returned to London. On the day after Pride's Purge, he became a determined supporter of those pushing for the King's trial and execution, believing that killing Charles was the only way to end the civil wars.
The death warrant for Charles was eventually signed by 59 of the trying court's members, including Cromwell who was the third to sign it. Oliver seized a pen and scribbled out the order, and handed the pen to the second officer, Colonel Hacker who stooped to sign it. The execution could now proceed. After the execution of the King, a republic was declared, known as the " Commonwealth of England ". The "Rump Parliament" exercised both executive and legislative powers, with a smaller Council of State also having some executive functions.
Cromwell remained a member of the "Rump" and was appointed a member of the Council. In the early months after the execution of Charles I, Cromwell tried but failed to unite the original group of "Royal Independents" centred around St John and Saye and Sele, which had fractured during Cromwell had been connected to this group since before the outbreak of civil war in and had been closely associated with them during the s.
However, only St John was persuaded to retain his seat in Parliament. The Royalists , meanwhile, had regrouped in Ireland, having signed a treaty with the Irish known as " Confederate Catholics ". In March, Cromwell was chosen by the Rump to command a campaign against them. Preparations for an invasion of Ireland occupied Cromwell in the subsequent months. In the latter part of the s, Cromwell came across political dissidence in the " New Model Army ". The " Leveller " or " Agitator " movement was a political movement that emphasised popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law, and religious tolerance.
These sentiments were expressed in the manifesto " Agreement of the People " in Cromwell and the rest of the " Grandees " disagreed with these sentiments in that they gave too much freedom to the people; they believed that the vote should only extend to the landowners. In the " Putney Debates " of , the two groups debated these topics in hopes of forming a new constitution for England. There were rebellions and mutinies following the debates, and in , the Bishopsgate mutiny resulted in the execution of Leveller Robert Lockyer by firing squad.
The next month, the Banbury mutiny occurred with similar results. Cromwell led the charge in quelling these rebellions. Cromwell led a Parliamentary invasion of Ireland from — Parliament's key opposition was the military threat posed by the alliance of the Irish Confederate Catholics and English royalists signed in The Confederate-Royalist alliance was judged to be the biggest single threat facing the Commonwealth.
However, the political situation in Ireland in was extremely fractured: Cromwell said in a speech to the army Council on 23 March that "I had rather be overthrown by a Cavalierish interest than a Scotch interest; I had rather be overthrown by a Scotch interest than an Irish interest and I think of all this is the most dangerous".
Cromwell's hostility to the Irish was religious as well as political. He was passionately opposed to the Catholic Church, which he saw as denying the primacy of the Bible in favour of papal and clerical authority, and which he blamed for suspected tyranny and persecution of Protestants in continental Europe. These settlers had settled on land seized from former, native Catholic owners to make way for the non-native Protestants.
These factors contributed to the brutality of the Cromwell military campaign in Ireland. Parliament had planned to re-conquer Ireland since and had already sent an invasion force there in Cromwell's invasion of was much larger and, with the civil war in England over, could be regularly reinforced and re-supplied. His nine-month military campaign was brief and effective, though it did not end the war in Ireland. Before his invasion, Parliamentarian forces held only outposts in Dublin and Derry. When he departed Ireland, they occupied most of the eastern and northern parts of the country.
After his landing at Dublin on 15 August itself only recently defended from an Irish and English Royalist attack at the Battle of Rathmines , Cromwell took the fortified port towns of Drogheda and Wexford to secure logistical supply from England. At the Siege of Drogheda in September , Cromwell's troops killed nearly 3, people after the town's capture—comprising around 2, Royalist soldiers and all the men in the town carrying arms, including some civilians, prisoners and Roman Catholic priests.
I am persuaded that this is a righteous judgment of God upon these barbarous wretches, who have imbrued their hands in so much innocent blood and that it will tend to prevent the effusion of blood for the future, which are satisfactory grounds for such actions, which otherwise cannot but work remorse and regret [58]. At the Siege of Wexford in October, another massacre took place under confused circumstances.
While Cromwell was apparently trying to negotiate surrender terms, some of his soldiers broke into the town, killed 2, Irish troops and up to 1, civilians, and burned much of the town. After the taking of Drogheda, Cromwell sent a column north to Ulster to secure the north of the country and went on to besiege Waterford , Kilkenny and Clonmel in Ireland's south-east.
Kilkenny surrendered on terms, as did many other towns like New Ross and Carlow , but Cromwell failed to take Waterford , and at the siege of Clonmel in May he lost up to 2, men in abortive assaults before the town surrendered. One of his major victories in Ireland was diplomatic rather than military. Cromwell therefore returned to England from Youghal on 26 May to counter this threat. The Parliamentarian conquest of Ireland dragged on for almost three years after Cromwell's departure.
The campaigns under Cromwell's successors Henry Ireton and Edmund Ludlow mostly consisted of long sieges of fortified cities and guerrilla warfare in the countryside. The last Catholic-held town, Galway , surrendered in April and the last Irish Catholic troops capitulated in April of the following year.
In the wake of the Commonwealth's conquest of the island of Ireland, the public practice of Roman Catholicism was banned and Catholic priests were killed when captured. The extent of Cromwell's brutality [66] [67] in Ireland has been strongly debated. Some historians argue that Cromwell never accepted that he was responsible for the killing of civilians in Ireland, claiming that he had acted harshly but only against those "in arms".
On the other hand, the worst atrocities committed in Ireland, such as mass evictions, killings and deportation of over 50, men, women and children as prisoners of war and indentured servants [70] to Bermuda and Barbados , were carried out under the command of other generals after Cromwell had left for England. Cromwell demanded that no supplies were to be seized from the civilian inhabitants and that everything should be fairly purchased; "I do hereby warn The massacres at Drogheda and Wexford were in some ways typical of the day, especially in the context of the recently ended Thirty Years War , [73] [74] although there are few comparable incidents during the Civil Wars in England or Scotland, which were fought mainly between Protestant adversaries, albeit of differing denominations.
One possible comparison is Cromwell's Siege of Basing House in —the seat of the prominent Catholic the Marquess of Winchester—which resulted in about of the garrison of being killed after being refused quarter. Contemporaries also reported civilian casualties, six Catholic priests and a woman. I do not think thirty of the whole number escaped with their lives. The military protocol of the day was that a town or garrison that rejected the chance to surrender was not entitled to quarter.
However, the captain of Wexford castle surrendered during the middle of the negotiations, and in the confusion some of his troops began indiscriminate killing and looting. Although Cromwell's time spent on campaign in Ireland was limited, and although he did not take on executive powers until , he is often the central focus of wider debates about whether, as historians such as Mark Levene and John Morrill suggest, the Commonwealth conducted a deliberate programme of ethnic cleansing in Ireland.
Then, once Cromwell had returned to England, the English Commissary, General Henry Ireton , adopted a deliberate policy of crop burning and starvation, which was responsible for the majority of an estimated , deaths out of a total Irish population of 1,, The sieges of Drogheda and Wexford have been prominently mentioned in histories and literature up to the present day. James Joyce , for example, mentioned Drogheda in his novel Ulysses: By an uncompleted process of terror, by an iniquitous land settlement, by the virtual proscription of the Catholic religion, by the bloody deeds already described, he cut new gulfs between the nations and the creeds.
Upon all of us there still lies 'the curse of Cromwell'. A key surviving statement of Cromwell's own views on the conquest of Ireland is his Declaration of the lord lieutenant of Ireland for the undeceiving of deluded and seduced people of January In the Irish minister for lands stated that his policies were necessary to "undo the work of Cromwell"; circa , Taoiseach Bertie Ahern demanded that a portrait of Cromwell be removed from a room in the Foreign Office before he began a meeting with Robin Cook.
Cromwell was much less hostile to Scottish Presbyterians , some of whom had been his allies in the First English Civil War, than he was to Irish Catholics. He described the Scots as a people "fearing His [God's] name, though deceived". His appeal rejected, Cromwell's veteran troops went on to invade Scotland. At first, the campaign went badly, as Cromwell's men were short of supplies and held up at fortifications manned by Scottish troops under David Leslie. Sickness began to spread in the ranks.
Cromwell was on the brink of evacuating his army by sea from Dunbar. However, on 3 September , unexpectedly, Cromwell smashed the main Scottish army at the Battle of Dunbar , killing 4, Scottish soldiers, taking another 10, prisoner, and then capturing the Scottish capital of Edinburgh. The following year, Charles II and his Scottish allies made a desperate attempt to invade England and capture London while Cromwell was engaged in Scotland.
Cromwell followed them south and caught them at Worcester on 3 September , and his forces destroyed the last major Scottish Royalist army at the Battle of Worcester. Charles II barely escaped capture and fled to exile in France and the Netherlands, where he remained until To fight the battle, Cromwell organised an envelopment followed by a multi-pronged coordinated attack on Worcester, his forces attacking from three directions with two rivers partitioning them.
He switched his reserves from one side of the river Severn to the other and then back again. In the final stages of the Scottish campaign, Cromwell's men under George Monck sacked Dundee, killing up to 1, men and women and children. The northwest Highlands was the scene of another pro-royalist uprising in —55, which was put down with deployment of 6, English troops there.
Cromwell's conquest left no significant legacy of bitterness in Scotland. The rule of the Commonwealth and Protectorate was largely peaceful, apart from the Highlands. Moreover, there were no wholesale confiscations of land or property. Three out of every four Justices of the Peace in Commonwealth Scotland were Scots and the country was governed jointly by the English military authorities and a Scottish Council of State.
Cromwell was away on campaign from the middle of until , and the various factions in Parliament began to fight amongst themselves with the King gone as their "common cause". Cromwell tried to galvanise the Rump into setting dates for new elections, uniting the three kingdoms under one polity, and to put in place a broad-brush, tolerant national church. However, the Rump vacillated in setting election dates, although it put in place a basic liberty of conscience, but it failed to produce an alternative for tithes or to dismantle other aspects of the existing religious settlement.
In frustration, Cromwell demanded that the Rump establish a caretaker government in April of 40 members drawn from the Rump and the army, and then abdicate; but the Rump returned to debating its own bill for a new government. Several accounts exist of this incident; in one, Cromwell is supposed to have said "you are no Parliament, I say you are no Parliament; I will put an end to your sitting". After the dissolution of the Rump, power passed temporarily to a council that debated what form the constitution should take.
They took up the suggestion of Major-General Thomas Harrison for a " sanhedrin " of saints. Although Cromwell did not subscribe to Harrison's apocalyptic , Fifth Monarchist beliefs—which saw a sanhedrin as the starting point for Christ's rule on earth—he was attracted by the idea of an assembly made up of men chosen for their religious credentials. In his speech at the opening of the assembly on 4 July , Cromwell thanked God's providence that he believed had brought England to this point and set out their divine mission: The assembly was tasked with finding a permanent constitutional and religious settlement Cromwell was invited to be a member but declined.
However, the revelation that a considerably larger segment of the membership than had been believed were the radical Fifth Monarchists led to its members voting to dissolve it on 12 December , out of fear of what the radicals might do if they took control of the Assembly.
After the dissolution of the Barebones Parliament, John Lambert put forward a new constitution known as the Instrument of Government , closely modelled on the Heads of Proposals. It made Cromwell Lord Protector for life to undertake "the chief magistracy and the administration of government". Cromwell was sworn in as Lord Protector on 16 December , with a ceremony in which he wore plain black clothing, rather than any monarchical regalia.
Nevertheless, Cromwell's power was buttressed by his continuing popularity among the army. Cromwell had two key objectives as Lord Protector. The first was "healing and settling" the nation after the chaos of the civil wars and the regicide, which meant establishing a stable form for the new government to take. Such forms were, he said, "but Cromwell declared, "A nobleman, a gentleman, a yeoman; the distinction of these: Direct taxation was reduced slightly and peace was made with the Dutch, ending the First Anglo-Dutch War. Cromwell soon secured the submission of these and largely left them to their own affairs, intervening only to curb his fellow Puritans who were usurping control over the Maryland Colony at the Battle of the Severn , by his confirming the former Catholic proprietorship and edict of tolerance there.
Of all the English dominions, Virginia was the most resentful of Cromwell's rule, and Cavalier emigration there mushroomed during the Protectorate. Cromwell famously stressed the quest to restore order in his speech to the first Protectorate parliament at its inaugural meeting on 3 September He declared that "healing and settling" were the "great end of your meeting". After some initial gestures approving appointments previously made by Cromwell, the Parliament began to work on a radical programme of constitutional reform.
Rather than opposing Parliament's bill, Cromwell dissolved them on 22 January The House of Commons representatives from the boroughs were elected by the burgesses or those borough residents who had the right to vote in municipal elections, and by the aldermen and councilors of the boroughs.
Cromwell's second objective was spiritual and moral reform. He aimed to restore liberty of conscience and promote both outward and inward godliness throughout England. The triers and the ejectors were intended to be at the vanguard of Cromwell's reform of parish worship.
This second objective is also the context in which to see the constitutional experiment of the Major Generals that followed the dissolution of the first Protectorate Parliament. After a royalist uprising in March , led by Sir John Penruddock , Cromwell influenced by Lambert divided England into military districts ruled by Army Major Generals who answered only to him.
The 15 major generals and deputy major generals—called "godly governors"—were central not only to national security , but Cromwell's crusade to reform the nation's morals. The generals not only supervised militia forces and security commissions, but collected taxes and ensured support for the government in the English and Welsh provinces.
Commissioners for securing the peace of the commonwealth were appointed to work with them in every county. While a few of these commissioners were career politicians, most were zealous puritans who welcomed the major-generals with open arms and embraced their work with enthusiasm.
However, the major-generals lasted less than a year. Many feared they threatened their reform efforts and authority. Their position was further harmed by a tax proposal by Major General John Desborough to provide financial backing for their work, which the second Protectorate parliament —instated in September —voted down for fear of a permanent military state. Ultimately, however, Cromwell's failure to support his men, sacrificing them to his opponents, caused their demise.
Their activities between November and September had, however, reopened the wounds of the s and deepened antipathies to the regime. As Lord Protector, Cromwell was aware of the Jewish community's involvement in the economics of the Netherlands, now England's leading commercial rival. It was this—allied to Cromwell's tolerance of the right to private worship of those who fell outside Puritanism—that led to his encouraging Jews to return to England in , over years after their banishment by Edward I , in the hope that they would help speed up the recovery of the country after the disruption of the Civil Wars.
At the Whitehall conference of December he quoted from St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans Cromwell's long-term religious motive for readmitting the Jews to England should not be doubted; after all, he was serious enough to ban Christmas as a pagan festival. William Prynne the Presbyterian, in contrast to Cromwell the Congregationalist, was strongly opposed to the latter's pro-Jewish policy.
Cromwell pledged to supply France with 6, troops and war ships. In accordance with the terms of the treaty, Mardyck and Dunkirk — a base for privateers and commerce raiders attacking English merchant shipping — were ceded to England. In , Cromwell was offered the crown by Parliament as part of a revised constitutional settlement, presenting him with a dilemma since he had been "instrumental" in abolishing the monarchy.
Cromwell agonised for six weeks over the offer. He was attracted by the prospect of stability it held out, but in a speech on 13 April he made clear that God's providence had spoken against the office of King: The event in part echoed a coronation , using many of its symbols and regalia, such as a purple ermine-lined robe, a sword of justice and a sceptre but not a crown or an orb.
But, most notably, the office of Lord Protector was still not to become hereditary, though Cromwell was now able to nominate his own successor. Cromwell's new rights and powers were laid out in the Humble Petition and Advice , a legislative instrument which replaced the Instrument of Government.
Despite failing to restore the Crown, this new constitution did set up many of the vestiges of the ancient constitution including a house of life peers in place of the House of Lords. In the Humble Petition it was called the Other House as the Commons could not agree on a suitable name. Furthermore, Oliver Cromwell increasingly took on more of the trappings of monarchy.
In particular, he created three peerages after the acceptance of the Humble Petition and Advice: Cromwell is thought to have suffered from malaria and from " stone ", a common term for urinary and kidney infections. In , he was struck by a sudden bout of malarial fever, followed directly by illness symptomatic of a urinary or kidney complaint. The Venetian ambassador wrote regular dispatches to the Doge of Venice in which he included details of Cromwell's final illness, and he was suspicious of the rapidity of his death.
He died at age 59 at Whitehall on Friday 3 September , the anniversary of his great victories at Dunbar and Worcester. He was buried with great ceremony, with an elaborate funeral at Westminster Abbey based on that of James I, [] his daughter Elizabeth also being buried there. He was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard. Richard had no power base in Parliament or the Army and was forced to resign in May , ending the Protectorate. There was no clear leadership from the various factions that jostled for power during the reinstated Commonwealth, so George Monck was able to march on London at the head of New Model Army regiments and restore the Long Parliament.
Under Monck's watchful eye, the necessary constitutional adjustments were made so that Charles II could be invited back from exile in to be King under a restored monarchy. Cromwell's body was exhumed from Westminster Abbey on 30 January , the 12th anniversary of the execution of Charles I, and was subjected to a posthumous execution, as were the remains of Robert Blake , John Bradshaw , and Henry Ireton. The body of Cromwell's daughter was allowed to remain buried in the Abbey.
His body was hanged in chains at Tyburn, London and then thrown into a pit. His head was cut off and displayed on a pole outside Westminster Hall until Afterwards, it was owned by various people, including a documented sale in to Josiah Henry Wilkinson, [] [] and it was publicly exhibited several times before being buried beneath the floor of the antechapel at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge in Many people began to question whether the body mutilated at Tyburn and the head seen on Westminster Hall were Cromwell's.
I am persuaded that this is a righteous judgment of God upon these barbarous wretches, who have imbrued their hands in so much innocent blood and that it will tend to prevent the effusion of blood for the future, which are satisfactory grounds for such actions, which otherwise cannot but work remorse and regret [58]. On Tangye's death, the entire collection was donated to the Museum of London , where it can still be seen. The Brish Civil wars Project. Oliver Cromwell in popular culture. In the " Putney Debates " of , the two groups debated these topics in hopes of forming a new constitution for England. Would you like to tell us about a lower price? Vacant Parliament suspended since Title last held by Thomas Purchase.
The stories suggest that his bodily remains are buried in London, Cambridgeshire, Northamptonshire, or Yorkshire. The Cromwell vault was later used as a burial place for Charles II's illegitimate descendants. During his lifetime, some tracts painted Cromwell as a hypocrite motivated by power. For example, The Machiavilian Cromwell and The Juglers Discovered are parts of an attack on Cromwell by the Levellers after , and both present him as a Machiavellian figure. Several biographies were published soon after Cromwell's death. An example is The Perfect Politician , which describes how Cromwell "loved men more than books" and provides a nuanced assessment of him as an energetic campaigner for liberty of conscience who is brought down by pride and ambition.
Clarendon famously declares that Cromwell "will be looked upon by posterity as a brave bad man". Clarendon was not one of Cromwell's confidantes, and his account was written after the Restoration of the monarchy. During the early 18th century, Cromwell's image began to be adopted and reshaped by the Whigs as part of a wider project to give their political objectives historical legitimacy. John Toland rewrote Edmund Ludlow 's Memoirs in order to remove the Puritan elements and replace them with a Whiggish brand of republicanism, and it presents the Cromwellian Protectorate as a military tyranny.
Through Ludlow, Toland portrayed Cromwell as a despot who crushed the beginnings of democratic rule in the s. View or edit your browsing history. Get to Know Us. English Choose a language for shopping. Amazon Music Stream millions of songs. Amazon Drive Cloud storage from Amazon. Alexa Actionable Analytics for the Web. AmazonGlobal Ship Orders Internationally.
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