Akkadian Dynasty: (Akkadian Chronicles Book 1)

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Sargon may indeed have introduced the notion of "empire" as understood in the later Assyrian period; the Neo-Assyrian Sargon Text , written in the first person, has Sargon challenging later rulers to "govern the black-headed people" i. Neo-Babylonian king Nabonidus r. Sargon of Akkad is sometimes identified as the first person in recorded history to rule over an empire in the sense of the central government of a multi-ethnic territory , although earlier Sumerian rulers Lugal-anne-mundu and Lugal-zage-si might have a similar claim.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This article is about the Akkadian king. For the YouTuber, see Carl Benjamin. Bronze head of an Akkadian ruler, discovered in Nineveh in , presumably depicting either Sargon or Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin. Ancient Near East portal. MA, meaning "land, country", is the old Sumerian name of the cultivated part of Mesopotamia Sumer.

An accession date of Sargon of BC assumes: A History of the Ancient Near East: Journal of Near Eastern Studies. Chronicles concerning early Babylonian kings. I, Cylindres orientaux, avec la collaboration de Joachim Menant , E. Leroux, Paris, , no. History , Routledge , p. Sayce, review of G. Contenau, Les Tablettes de Kerkouk , Antiquity 1. The source of this is Tompkins, Trans.

Astour in Eblaitica vol. The Texts Eisenbrauns, , p. In Chavalas, Mark William. The ancient Near East: University Press, , p. The Texts , p. Stephanie Dalley, Sargon of Agade in literature: The Sumerian story was popular in the early second millennium, and the Akkadian legend may originally have introduced it. Cuneiform scribes were trained with such works for many centuries. They enjoyed new popularity in the late eighth century when Sargon II of Assyria sought to associate himself with his famous namesake.

The Texts , 33— The myth of the birth of the hero: English translation by Drs. Robbins and Smith Ely Jelliffe. The Masks of God, Vol. The Temple Dictionary of the Bible. The ancient Near East. Continuum International Publishing Group. Retrieved 29 July Mesopotamia and the ancient Near East. The Exaltation of Inanna. I ascended the upper mountains; I burst through the lower mountains.

The country of the sea I besieged three times; Dilmun I captured. Unto the great Dur-ilu I went up, I Whatsoever king shall be exalted after me, Let him rule, let him govern the black-headed peoples; mighty mountains with axes of bronze let him destroy; let him ascend the upper mountains, let him break through the lower mountains; the country of the sea let him besiege three times; Dilmun let him capture; To great Dur-ilu let him go up.

Thames and Hudson, , p. Executions were not uncommon, nor were whippings followed by forced labour. Some offenses allowed the accused a trial under torture or duress. One tablet that covers property rights has brutal penalties for violators. A creditor could force debtors to work for him, but not sell them. In the Middle Assyrian Laws, sex crimes were punished identically whether they were homosexual or heterosexual. Such sexual relations were even seen as good fortune. Anyone could practice it freely, just as anyone could visit a prostitute , provided it was done without violence and without compulsion , and preferably as far as taking the passive role was concerned, with specialists.

That there was nothing religiously amiss with homosexual love between men is seen by the fact that they prayed for divine blessing on it. It seems clear that the Mesopotamians saw nothing wrong in homosexual acts between consenting adults". Assyria and its empire were not unduly affected by these tumultuous events for some years, perhaps the only ancient power that was not. However, upon the death of Ashur-bel-kala in BC, Assyria went into a comparative decline for the next or so years.

The empire shrank significantly, and by BC Assyria appears to have controlled only areas close to Assyria itself, essential to keeping trade routes open in eastern Aramea, south eastern Asia Minor, central Mesopotamia and north western Iran. New West Semitic-speaking peoples such as the Arameans , Chaldeans and Suteans moved into areas to the west and south of Assyria, including overrunning much of Babylonia to the south, Indo-European speaking Iranic peoples such as the Medes , Persians , Sarmatians and Parthians moved into the lands to the east of Assyria, displacing the native Kassites and Gutians and pressuring Elam and Mannea all of which ancient non Indo-European civilisations of Ancient Iran , and to the north in Asia Minor the Phrygians overran that part of the Hittites not already destroyed by Assyria, and Lydia emerged, a new Hurrian state named Urartu arose in the Caucasus , and Cimmerians , Colchians Georgians and Scythians around the Black Sea and Caucasus.

Despite the apparent weakness of Assyria in comparison to its former might, at heart it in fact remained a solid, well defended nation whose warriors were the best in the world [ citation needed ]. Assyria, with its stable monarchy, powerful army and secure borders was in a stronger position during this time than potential rivals such as Egypt, Babylonia, Elam, Phrygia, Urartu, Persia, Lydia and Media.

Assyrian kings during this period appear to have adopted a policy of maintaining and defending a compact, secure nation and satellite colonies immediately surrounding it, and interspersed this with sporadic punitive raids and invasions of neighbouring territories when the need arose. He cleared Aramean and other tribal peoples from Assyria's borders and began to expand in all directions into Anatolia , Ancient Iran , Levant and Babylonia.

Ashurnasirpal II — BC continued this expansion apace, subjugating much of the Levant to the west, the newly arrived Persians and Medes to the east, annexed central Mesopotamia from Babylon to the south, and expanded deep into Asia Minor to the north. Little further expansion took place under Shamshi-Adad V and his successor, the regent queen Semiramis , however when Adad-nirari III BC came of age, he took the reins of power from mother and set about a relentless campaign of conquest; subjugated the Arameans, Phoenicians, Philistines, Israelites, Neo-Hittites and Edomites, Persians, Medes and Manneans, penetrating as far as the Caspian Sea.

Background

He invaded and subjugated Babylonia , and then the migrant Chaldean and Sutean tribes settled in south eastern Mesopotamia whom he conquered and reduced to vassalage. He created the world's first professional army , introduced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of Assyria and its vast empire, and reorganised the empire drastically. Not satisfied with merely holding Babylonia in vassalage, Tiglath-Pileser deposed its king and had himself crowned king of Babylon. The imperial, economic, political, military and administrative reforms of Tiglath-Pileser III were to prove a blueprint for future empires, such as those of the Persians, Greeks, Romans, Carthaginians, Byzantines, Arabs and Turks.

Shalmaneser V reigned only briefly, but once more drove the Egyptians from southern Canaan, where they were fomenting revolt against Assyria. Sargon II quickly took Samaria, effectively ending the northern Kingdom of Israel and carrying 27, people away into captivity into the Israelite diaspora. He was forced to fight a war to drive out the Scythians and Cimmerians who had attempted to invade Assyria's vassal states of Persia and Media. The Neo-Hittite states of northern Syria were conquered, as well as Cilicia. King Midas of Phrygia , fearful of Assyrian power, offered his hand in friendship.

Elam was defeated and Babylonia and Chaldea reconquered. He made a new capital city named Dur Sharrukin. He was succeeded by his son Sennacherib who moved the capital to Nineveh and made the deported peoples work on improving Nineveh's system of irrigation canals. Nineveh was transformed into the largest city in the world at the time. Esarhaddon had Babylon rebuilt, he imposed a vassal treaty upon his Persian, Median and Parthian subjects, and he once more defeated the Scythes and Cimmerians. Esarhaddon declared himself "king of Egypt , Libya , and Kush ".

He installed native Egyptian princes throughout the land to rule on his behalf. Under Ashurbanipal — BC , an unusually well educated king for his time who could speak, read and write in Sumerian, Akkadian and Aramaic, Assyrian domination spanned from the Caucasus Mountains modern Armenia , Georgia and Azerbaijan in the north to Nubia , Egypt , Libya and Arabia in the south, and from the East Mediterranean , Cyprus and Antioch in the west to Persia , Cissia and the Caspian Sea in the east.

The Assyrian Empire was severely crippled following the death of Ashurbanipal in BC—the nation and its empire descending into a prolonged and brutal series of civil wars involving three rival kings, Ashur-etil-ilani , Sin-shumu-lishir and Sin-shar-ishkun. Egypt's 26th Dynasty , which had been installed by the Assyrians as vassals, quietly detached itself from Assyria, although it was careful to retain friendly relations. The Scythians and Cimmerians took advantage of the bitter fighting among the Assyrians to raid Assyrian colonies, with hordes of horse-borne marauders ravaging parts of Asia Minor and the Caucasus , where the vassal kings of Urartu and Lydia begged their Assyrian overlord for help in vain.

They also raided the Levant , Israel and Judah where Ashkelon was sacked by the Scythians and all the way into Egypt whose coasts were ravaged and looted with impunity. The Iranic peoples the Medes , Persians and Parthians , aided by the previous Assyrian destruction of the hitherto dominant Elamites of Ancient Iran , also took advantage of the upheavals in Assyria to coalesce into a powerful Median-dominated force which destroyed the pre-Iranic kingdom of Mannea and absorbed the remnants of the pre-Iranic Elamites of southern Iran , and the equally pre-Iranic Gutians , Manneans and Kassites of the Zagros Mountains and the Caspian Sea.

Nabopolassar , still pinned down in southern Mesopotamia by Assyrian forces, was completely uninvolved in this major breakthrough against Assyria. Despite the sorely depleted state of Assyria , bitter fighting ensued; throughout BC the Medes continued to gradually make hard fought inroads into Assyria itself, scoring a decisive and devatating victory over the Assyrian forces at the battle of Assur.

This led to the unification of the forces ranged against Assyria who launched a massive combined attack, finally besieging and entering Nineveh in late BC, with Sin-shar-ishkun being slain in the bitter street by street fighting. Despite the loss of almost all of its major cities, and in the face of overwhelming odds, Assyrian resistance continued under Ashur-uballit II — BC , who fought his way out of Nineveh and coalesced Assyrian forces around Harran which finally fell in BC.

The same year, Ashur-uballit II besieged Harran with the help of the Egyptian army, but this failed too, and this last defeat ended the Assyrian Empire. Assyria was initially ruled by the short-lived Median Empire — BC after its fall. In a twist of fate, Nabonidus , the last king of Babylon together with his son and co-regent Belshazzar , was himself an Assyrian from Harran.

He had overthrown the short-lived Chaldean dynasty in Babylonia, after which the Chaldeans disappeared from history, being fully absorbed into the native population of Babylonia.

However, apart from plans to dedicate religious temples in the city of Harran, Nabonidus showed little interest in rebuilding Assyria. Nineveh and Kalhu remained in ruins with only small numbers of Assyrians living within them; conversely, a number of towns and cities, such as Arrapkha , Guzana , Nohadra and Harran , remained intact, and Assur and Arbela Irbil were not completely destroyed, as is attested by their later revival.

However, Assyria spent much of this short period in a degree of devastation, following its fall. Between and BC, Assyria rebelled against the new Persian Dynasty, which had usurped the previous Median dynasty. The rebellion centered around Tyareh was eventually quashed by Cyrus the Great. Assyria seems to have recovered dramatically, and flourished during this period. It became a major agricultural and administrative centre of the Achaemenid Empire , and its soldiers were a mainstay of the Persian Army.

The Persians had spent centuries under Assyrian domination their first ruler Achaemenes and his successors, having been vassals of Assyria , and Assyrian influence can be seen in Achaemenid art, infrastructure and administration. Early Persian rulers saw themselves as successors to Ashurbanipal , and Mesopotamian Aramaic was retained as the lingua franca of the empire for over two hundred years, and Greek writers such as Thucydides still referred to it as the Assyrian language.

Shar-Kali-Sharri

Conversely the ancient city of Assur once more became a rich and prosperous entity. Five centuries later these were later to have a global influence as the liturgical language and written script for Syriac Christianity and its accompanying Syriac literature which also emerged in Assyria before spreading throughout the Near East , Asia Minor , The Caucasus , Central Asia , the Indian Subcontinent and China.

The Macedonian Empire — was partitioned in BC. It thereafter became part of the Seleucid Empire BC. It is from this period that the later Syria vs Assyria naming controversy arises , the Seleucids applied the name 'Syria' which is a 9th-century BC Indo-Anatolian derivation of 'Assyria' see Etymology of Syria not only to Assyria itself, but also to the Levantine lands to the west historically known as Aram and Eber Nari , which had been part of the Assyrian empire but, the north east corner aside, never a part of Assyria proper.

When the Seleucids lost control of Assyria proper, the name Syria survived but was erroneously applied not only to the land of Assyria itself, but also now to Aramea also known as Eber Nari to the west that had once been part of the Assyrian empire, but apart from the north eastern corner, had never been a part of Assyria itself, nor inhabited by Assyrians.

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This was to lead to both the Assyrians from Northern Mesopotamia and the Arameans and Phoenicians from the Levant being collectively dubbed Syrians and later also Syriacs in Greco-Roman and later European culture, regardless of ethnicity, history or geography. During Seleucid rule, Assyrians ceased to hold the senior military, economic and civil positions they had enjoyed under the Achaemenids, being largely replaced by Greeks.

The Greek language also replaced Mesopotamian East Aramaic as the lingua franca of the empire, although this did not affect the Assyrian population themselves, who were not Hellenised during the Seleucid era. During the Seleucid period in southern Mesopotamia, Babylon was gradually abandoned in favour of a new city named Seleucia on the Tigris , effectively bringing an end to Babylonia as a geo-political entity.

These freedoms were accompanied by a major Assyrian cultural revival, and temples to the Assyrian national gods Ashur , Sin , Hadad , Ishtar , Ninurta , Tammuz and Shamash were once more dedicated throughout Assyria and Upper Mesopotamia during this period. In addition, Christianity arrived in Assyria soon after the death of Christ and the Assyrians began to gradually convert to Christianity from the ancient Mesopotamian religion during the period between the early first and third centuries. Assyria became an important centre of Syriac Christianity and Syriac Literature , with the Church of the East evolving in Assyria, and the Syriac Orthodox Church partly also, with Osroene becoming the first independent Christian state in history.

However, in , under Trajan , Assyria and its independent states were briefly taken over by Rome as the province of Assyria. The Assyrian kingdom of Adiabene was destroyed as an independent state during this period. Roman rule lasted only a few years, and the Parthians once more regained control with the help of the Assyrians, who were incited to overthrow the Roman garrisons by the Parthian king. However, a number of Assyrians were conscripted into the Roman Army , with many serving in the region of Hadrian's Wall in Roman Britain , and inscriptions in Aramaic made by soldiers have been discovered in Northern England dating from the second century.

With loose Parthian rule restored, Assyria and its patchwork of states continued much as they had before the Roman interregnum, although Assyria and Mesopotamia as a whole became a front line between the Roman and Parthian empires. Other new religious movements also emerged in the form of gnostic sects such as Mandeanism , as well as the now extinct Manichean religion.

In , Assyria was largely taken over by the Sasanian Empire. After driving out the Romans and Parthians, the Sassanid rulers set about annexing the independent states within Assyria during the mid- to late 3rd century, the last being Assur itself in the late 's to early 's. Christianity continued to spread, and many of the ethnically Assyrian churches that exist today are among the oldest in the world. Nevertheless, although predominantly Christian, a minority of Assyrians still held onto their ancient Mesopotamian religion until as late as the 10th or 11th century AD.

Temples were still being dedicated to the national god Ashur as well as other Mesopotamian gods in his home city, in Harran and elsewhere during the 4th and 5th centuries AD, indicating the ancient pre-Christian Assyrian identity was still extant to some degree. Parts of Assyria appear to have been semi independent as late as the latter part of the 4th century AD, with a king named Sennacherib II reputedly ruling the northern reaches in s AD. Centuries of constant warfare between the Byzantine Empire and Sassanid Empire left both empires exhausted, which made both of them open to loss in a war against the Muslim Arab army, under the newfound Rashidun Caliphate.

After the early Islamic conquests, Assyria was dissolved as an official administrative entity by an empire. Under Arab rule, Mesopotamia as a whole underwent a gradual process of further Arabisation and the beginning of Islamification , and the region saw a large influx of non indigenous Arabs, Kurds , Iranian , and Turkic peoples. However, the indigenous Assyrian population of northern Mesopotamia retained their language, religion, culture and identity. Under the Arab Islamic empires, the Christian Assyrians were classed as dhimmis , who had certain restrictions imposed upon them.

Assyrians were thus excluded from specific duties and occupations reserved for Muslims, they did not enjoy the same political rights as Muslims, their word was not equal to that of a Muslim in legal and civil matters without a Muslim witness, they were subject to payment of a special tax jizyah and they were banned from spreading their religion further in Muslim-ruled lands.

However, personal matters such as marriage and divorce were governed by the cultural laws of the Assyrians. For those reasons, and even during the Sassanian period before Islamic rule, The Assyrian Church of the East formed a church structure that spread Nestorian Christianity to as far away as China, in order to proselytize away from Muslim-ruled regions In Iran and their homeland in Mesopotamia, with evidence of their massive church structure being the Nestorian Stele , an artifact found in China which documented over years of Christian history in China from to AD.

The first signs of trouble for the Assyrians started in the 13th century, when the Mongols first invaded the Near East after the fall of Baghdad in to Hulagu Khan. The Mongols in fact spent most of their time oppressing Muslims and Jews, outlawing the practice of circumcision and halal butchery , as they found them repulsive and violent. However, the Mongol rulers in the Near East eventually converted to Islam. In spring , the Mongol Malik governor of the region attempted to seize it from them with the help of the Kurds and Arabs, but was defeated.

After his defeat he decided to siege the city. The Assyrians held out for three months, but the citadel was at last taken by Ilkhanate troops and Arab, Turkic and Kurdish tribesmen on July 1, The defenders of the citadel fought to the last man, and many of the Assyrian inhabitants of the lower town were subsequently massacred. Regardless of these hardships, the Assyrian people remained numerically dominant in the north of Mesopotamia as late as the 14th century AD, and the city of Assur functioned as their religious and cultural capital.

However, in the midth century the Muslim Turk ruler Tamurlane conducted a religiously motivated massacre of the indigenous Assyrian Christians , and worked tirelessly to destroy the vast Assyrian Church structure established throughout the Far East , destroying the entire structure of the church with the exception of the St Thomas Christians of the Malabar Coast in India , whom number 10 million or so in modern times. Around years after the massacres by Timur, a religious schism known as the Schism of occurred among the Assyrians of northern Mesopotamia, when a large number of followers of the Assyrian Church of the East in Amid elected a rival Patriarch named Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa after becoming dissatisfied with the leadership of the Assyrian Church, at this point based in Alqosh.

Due to a need for an ordination by a metropolitan bishop, Sulaqa went into communion with the Catholic Church after at first failing to gain acceptance within the Syriac Orthodox Church.

Akkadian literature

Soon after coming back Sulaqa was assassinated by supporters of the rival patriarch in Alqosh, but was able to form a new church structure and line of succession known as the Shimun Line prior to his death. This group of Assyrians eventually broke off ties with Rome, moved en masse to the Hakkari Mountains, and returned to the Assyrian church they once adhered to prior to the Schism of , while still operating independently from the original Assyrian Church structure based in Alqosh.

A decade or so before the Shimun line broke off ties with Rome, another faction within the Assyrian Church entered into communion with Rome known as the Josephite line, and upon the Shimun line leaving, inherited the now vacant Church of Assyria and Mosul , which was renamed the " Chaldean Catholic Church " by The Vatican in This is now believed to be due to an error by the Catholic Church which already had a history of labelling eastern Christians including Cypriots as Chaldeans , but due to that error, some of their followers became known as Chaldean Catholics or Chaldo-Assyrians , despite having absolutely no ethnic, historical, linguistic, cultural or geographic connections whatsoever to the by now long extinct Chaldean tribe of south east Mesopotamia.

However, these appellations appear to have only emerged relatively recently, as in the late 19th century, Hormuzd Rassam , himself a member of the Chaldean Catholic Church, states that church members were using the ethnic term Assyrian and the theological term Nestorian to describe themselves. Later on in the s the original Assyrian Church of the East structure in Alqosh combined with the Catholic one, creating the modern Chaldean Catholic Church structure, which is ironic considering that the only remaining ethnic Assyrian Church to practice the Assyrian Church of the East denomination was the first one to split from the Assyrian Church of the East back in In addition to the Eastern Rite Churches, The Syriac Orthodox Church also has a large number of ethnically Assyrian Adherents, who are known sometimes as Syriacs , the term 'Syriac' being etymologically derived from 'Assyrian'.

The Syriac Orthodox Church has 5 million adherents across the globe, but is based in Damascus. However, since the 11th century it was based in the Saffron Monastery of Tur Abdin , and prior to that it was based in Antioch. Like the Nestorian churches, schisms also occurred within the Syriac Orthodox Church. In Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries began to proselytize among the Syriac Orthodox faithful at Aleppo , forming a larger pro-catholic movement within the Syriac Orthodox Church. So in , when the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate had fallen vacant, the Catholic party was able to elect one of its own, Andrew Akijan as Patriarch of the Syriac Church.

This line of succession died out quickly, however, but in with the election of Michael Jarweh as Patriarch the Ignatius line has been the head of the Syriac Catholic Church since then, and also has its base in Damascus. After these splits, the Assyrians suffered a number of religiously and ethnically motivated massacres throughout the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, [76] such as the Massacres of Badr Khan which resulted in the massacre of over 10, Assyrians in the s, [77] culminating in the large scale Hamidian massacres of unarmed men, women and children by Turks and Kurds in the s at the hands of the Ottoman Empire and its associated largely Kurdish and Arab militias, which greatly reduced their numbers, particularly in southeastern Turkey where over 25, Assyrians were murdered.

The Assyrians suffered a further catastrophic series of events during World War I in the form of the religiously and ethnically motivated Assyrian Genocide at the hands of the Ottomans and their Kurdish and Arab allies from to In reaction against Ottoman cruelty, the Assyrians took up arms, and an Assyrian war of independence was fought during World War I which took place in what is today south eastern Turkey, northern Iraq, north western Iran and north eastern Syria.

For a time, the Assyrians fought successfully against overwhelming numbers, scoring a number of victories against the Ottomans and Kurds, and also hostile Arab and Iranian groups. However, due to the collapse of the Russian Empire —due to the Russian Revolution —and the similar collapse of the Armenian Defense , the Assyrians were left without allies.

As a result, the Assyrians were vastly outnumbered, outgunned, surrounded, cut off, and without supplies. The only option they had was to flee the region into northwest Iran and fight their way, with around 50, civilians in tow, to British train lines going to Mandatory Iraq.

The sizable Assyrian presence in south eastern Anatolia which had endured for over four millennia was thus reduced to no more than 15, by the end of World War I, and by many of those who remained were forcibly expelled in a display of ethnic cleansing by the Turkish government, with many leaving and later founding villages in the Sapna and Nahla valleys in the Dohuk Governorate of Iraq. In the Assyrian settlements in Mindan and Baquba were attacked by Iraqi Arabs , but the Assyrian tribesmen displayed their military prowess by successfully defeating and driving off the Arab forces.

The Assyrian Levies were founded by the British in , with ancient Assyrian military rankings, such as Rab-shakeh , Rab-talia and Turtanu, being revived for the first time in millennia for this force.

The Assyrians were prized by the British rulers for their fighting qualities, loyalty, bravery and discipline, and were used to help the British put down insurrections among the Arabs, Kurds and Turcoman , guard the borders with Iran and Turkey, and protect British military installations. During the s Assyrian levies saw action in effectively defeating Arab and Kurdish forces during anti-British rebellions in Iraq.

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After Iraq was granted independence by the British in , the Assyrians suffered the Simele Massacre , where thousands of unarmed villagers men, women and children were slaughtered by joint Arab-Kurdish forces of the Iraqi Army. The massacres of civilians followed a clash between armed Assyrian tribesmen and the Iraqi army, where the Iraqi forces suffered a defeat after trying to disarm the Assyrians, whom they feared would attempt to secede from Iraq.

Armed Assyrian Levies were prevented by the British from going to the aid of these civilians, and the British government then whitewashed the massacres at the League of Nations. Assyrians played a major role in the victory over Arab-Iraqi forces at the Battle of Habbaniya and elsewhere in , when the Iraqi government decided to join World War II on the side of Nazi Germany.

The British presence in Iraq lasted until , and Assyrian Levies remained attached to British forces until this time, after which they were disarmed and disbanded. A further persecution of Assyrians took place in the Soviet Union in the late s and early s when thousands of Assyrians settled in Georgia, Armenia and southern Russia were forcibly deported from their homes in the dead of night by Stalin without warning or reason to Central Asia , with most being relocated to Kazakhstan , where a small minority still remain.

The period from the s through to was a period of respite for the Assyrians in northern Iraq and north east Syria. The regime of Iraqi President Kassim in particular saw the Assyrians accepted into mainstream society. Continuum International Publishing Group. Retrieved 29 July Chronicles of the Ancient World. Notable rulers of Sumer. Alulim Dumuzid the Shepherd En-men-dur-ana Ziusudra. Enmerkar Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman Gilgamesh. Retrieved from " https:

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