Social and Economic Policies in Korea: Ideas, Networks and Linkages (Routledge Advances in Korean St

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Tony Romo by Clifford W. Mills by Richard 4. Houben-Weyl Methods in Organic Chemistry: Get Charles the Bold and Italy While the mutual information in the bilateral relations is by definition positive, the TH indicator T uig as operationalized above can also be negative.

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This reduction of uncertainty at the systems level can be considered as a synergetic effect of TH relations. Mutual information in trilateral TH relations in Korea. The longitudinal trend Figure 3 as expressed using two-year moving averages shows an interesting path among the three institutional spheres. First, there is a reduction of uncertainty among academic, public, and industrial research actors in the Korean publication system from to Thus, an intensive and synergistic collaboration among the UIG institutions is indicated in the early s Figure 3.

Second, the mutual information among the three TH agencies T uig is relatively stable during the s, but begins to decrease during the last ten years. The trend line shows that the TH dynamics of UIG relations has varied considerably; this variation generally accords with changes in Korean government research policies as explained in an earlier section. Third, the contribution of academic knowledge to the Korean economy has surprisingly declined since using this indicator.

While the TH networks of Korean research institutions were becoming more cohesive as indicated by the two-year moving averages in terms of the co-authorship relations in ISI-listed journal publications, a decisive break occurred around This can be attributed to the Asian financial crisis of and , and the subsequent instigation of the Brain Korea 21 BK21 program. The Korean government launched the BK21 program with the purpose of promoting university research because of the important role universities play in the national innovation process. As noted, this program was successful on its own terms.

However, the TH indicator reveals a decrease in the network dynamics during this period. In particular, the bilateral relations between researchers in universities and industries significantly decreased in activity. This recalls the criticisms of Browman and Stergiou that the use of bibliometric indices in evaluating scholarly performance, without a thorough and insightful understanding of their strengths and weaknesses, can be misleading for the development of a national research policy.

In addition to these policy incentives, universities in Korea became institutionally strict about promoting faculty members during this latter period Park et al. Several schools required natural and engineering science researchers to publish their research only in SCI journals if they wanted to continue to be employed or gain promotion. One can wonder whether under such institutional-regulatory frameworks, academic researchers will collaborate across institutional borders.

The institutional incentives in terms of funding grants and faculty promotion tend to give credit to single-authored publications more than collaborative publications.

This practice may further discourage interactions among the three institutional spheres of the TH dynamics. Under the PBS system, government-affiliated scientists were salaried according to their quantitative performance in terms of the number of acquired profitable projects during the previous one or two years. This program discouraged public-sector researchers from collaborating with researchers in academia or industry because the government-affiliated scientists were increasingly reluctant to share their research activities with others. The institutional incentive was aimed at securing resources in cutting-edge projects for the individual researcher.

Finally, in addition to the fact that the Korean government policy tends to focus on numbers of publications e. When Korean universities and public research institutes were producing innovative research in emerging technologies during the s and s, UIG collaborations were popular among academic scientists.

However, this does not necessary mean that industry researchers are far less enthusiastic in co-inventing commercial products with their academic colleagues in Korea. The Social Sciences and the Humanities.

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Some scientific programs in the humanities and social sciences rely on multi-researcher endeavors requiring substantial information exchanges among the academic, public, and industrial sectors. T he Academic Promotion Plan of the Korea Research Foundation stresses the need for scholars in the humanities and social scientists in particular to cooperate in the knowledge diffusion and national innovation process Yang, It should be noted, though, that this plan extends from and is thus beyond the publications dates considered in this study.

Figure 4 shows the disappointing result for TH dynamics in the humanities. Collaborative arrangements in the humanities often produce book-style policy reports—mostly in Korean—but not often articles in international journals. The Korean audience including public officials in the humanities prefers Korean documents with detailed tables, figure, and explanations.

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Scholars in this field do not strive to publish their collaborative and often policy-oriented outputs in English [4]. Figures 5 shows the results of the analysis of bilateral relations between TH sectors for the SSCI in terms of mutual information measured in bits of information. Interestingly, UG and UI collaborations show different results from the mids to the mids; T ug values were in decline, but T ui values went up during this period.

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The BK21 program, begun in , could be expected to affect mutual information between university and industrial research outputs adversely, because university researchers funded by BK21 are evaluated on their publication performance rather than on their contributions to transfer information or their social impact. During the most recent decade, we consequentially observe a decrease in the network dynamics of social science research Figure 6. The overall pattern of the TH dynamics in the social sciences is more or less similar to the SCI-based indicators, although there is a delay in terms of the longitudinal pattern.

For example, national co-authorship relationships became more dynamic among universities, industry and government between the mids and the mids.

This is shown in Figure 6 as decreasing uncertainty at the systems level. However, there has been less uncertainty reduction as expressed by T uig values in more recent times. Judging from the number of published papers, the research portfolio in the social sciences has been prolific since Note that there are also differences between the two datasets; for example, the exponential fit for the output measured in the SSCI from to is larger than 0. This indicates that the social sciences are still catching up with the natural sciences in terms of turning national and non-ISI output into output that is appreciated in institutional evaluations.

Nations differ in terms of their research portfolios and their economic structures. Both research fields and industrial structures are internationally organized. This raises a number of control problems at the national level.

Government intervention—particularly in small nations such as Korea—can no longer be expected to steer these developments. Governments nevertheless are under pressure to develop programmatic incentives. These incentives are focused on the institutional level; the incentivized systems, however, have a degree of freedom in the international dimension and may show resilience regarding government intervention.

Differentiation is enforced within each of the helices of the TH model by the rationale of specific subsystems: However, because of historical developments, the priorities in these programs also have changed. Not amazingly, this led to a strong relative increase of university-government co-authorship relations because university academics could only gain legitimacy and secure funding by aligning themselves with the national policy goals. The liberalization of the s witnessed the withering of these bureaucratically inspired circles and the rise of university-industry collaborations in strategic sectors of the Korean economy.

The synergetic effects of bilateral and trilateral UIG relations on one another increased spectacularly during this period. During the s, the tables were turned.

First the demise of the Soviet Union and the opening of China in the decade posed a major challenge to the Korean innovation system. Knowledge and technology-intensive industry became crucial assets for development in a knowledge-based economy. Korean industry, however, had matured during the s and become internationalized. As Leydesdorff and Sun found in Japan, university-industry relations tend to become more internationally than nationally oriented [5].

The Korean government drew conclusions from these developments after the monetary crisis in Asia in The new government programs were from then onwards based on differentiation among the three sectors of the research system: In academia, this policy complemented an ongoing trend to focus on international publishing, and universities reacted by adapting their hiring and promotion policies to these core incentives. As a consequence of this differentiation, the integration in TH relations became less central not only to policy making, but also to the dynamics of the Korean innovation system itself.

The synergy in TH relations has eroded since The role of government as interventionist agent providing integration at the national level decreased at the institutional level. The institutional incentives are increasingly adapted to the functionally specific ones and less subservient to national objectives set on programmatic grounds. Incentives at the institutional level—further reinforced by national programs like the BK21—cannot be applied to some faculties and not to others. These disciplines are intrinsically more oriented to cultural and social contexts on which they reflect and thus contribute analytically, intellectually, and critically.

While the pressure to publish may lead in the natural and life sciences to premature knowledge claims e. It is easier to publish in prestigious journals using American statistics about the American economy than using a precise analysis of the dynamics of Korean economic development. Since the descriptive statistics are increasingly available on the Internet, one can witness these changes of interest in topical selections in developed smaller nations such as Denmark, the Netherlands, and Korea.

Scholarly journals published in Korean are increasingly perceived among academics as playgrounds for PhD students who have not yet reached the level of publishing internationally. In summary, government policies have influenced the Korean system to an extent which we did not expect given the continuities and resiliencies prevailing in all systems.

However, an unintended effect of these policies has been the erosion of national co-authorship relations spanning institutional boundaries.

The systems to be incentivized have been internationalized and globalized. Government has been left behind at the national level of integration; they have tried to gain legitimacy by jumping onto emerging research bandwagons. The most recent financial crisis may have turned the tables again, but recent developments fall outside the scope of this study. The results of this study has shown that the emphasis of the Korean government and universities on publication performance in funding allocations, grants, faculty recruitment, promotion, and tenure discourages collaborations among the three institutional spheres of the TH dynamics.

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• Fantastic Realms 1 (Kevin J. Anderson’s Fantastic Realms)
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