Zambia Then And Now: Colonial Rulers and their African Successors (Kegan Paul Africa Library)

Books Africas Zambia And Zimbabwe

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Youth and Higher Education in Africa. Life in an African Country The Amazing Continent of Africa: Zimbabwe--The Political Economy of Decline: Wieschhoff - Paperback Articles on Ecoregions in Africa, Including: This item is currently out of stock. FREE Shipping on orders over View full product details. Simultaneously with these developments in the Mediterranean and as a result of improvements to technology for navigation and sailing borrowed from the Chinese and the Arabs, Europeans notably the Portuguese began to explore the Atlantic coast of West Africa.

Historical records show that by they reached the mouth of the Senegal River venturing further to Elmina in and to the Bight of Benin in Trading at first with the coastal peoples in the Niger delta for the first few years of their arrival in the Bight of Benin, the Portuguese ventured further inland and established contact with the Kingdom of Benin in Trade with a centralized kingdom offered better organization and security.

For several years the Portuguese and other Europeans traded along the West African coast moving goods from one part to the other. They bought pepper, elephant teeth, ivory and some slaves in the Benin area and exchanged the slaves for gold on the Gold Coast further west. In this way, goods were moved further along the coast and in larger quantities than local West African traders were accustomed or able to go. The main 71 It is likely that European contact with West Africa dates back much earlier than this from sporadic records such as those recording voyages of Hanno and other Carthaginians, but definitive and continuous records exist from the 15 th century.

See Alan Burns, History of Nigeria, 7th ed. Allen and Unwin Ltd. See also, Basil Davidson, supra note 65 at Early relations with African kingdoms also involved the exchange of diplomats and educational exchanges. Some slaves were also shipped to Lisbon and sold in slave markets there. When Esigie, the Oba of Benin, banned the sale of male slaves to Europeans around , the slave traders simply shifted to other nearby markets for their supply.

Trips of these European sailors were financed largely by the European aristocracy and a few wealthy European traders in the 15th and 16th centuries. Henry the Navigator of Portugal and the kings and queens of Castille, Spain and the Netherlands actively supported these voyages.

The Portuguese went towards Africa and from there to the East Indies whilst the Spanish, in search of a sea route to Asia,74 found themselves in the Caribbean Islands and the Americas.

Imposition of taxes sometimes in quotas of gold to be delivered to the Governor on pain of amputation of limbs on the native peoples and their enslavement, among other things, did little to alleviate the problem. The indigenous population was decimated by the cruelty of slavery and the diseases 72 Burns, ibid. The Transatlantic Slave Trade? Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. Around Spain conquered Portugal and took over its government. In the same year the United Provinces of the Netherlands declared their independence from Spain and joined the African trade, seeking to take advantage of Portuguese weakness to capture some of its strongholds.

In , after earlier unsuccessful attempts, they captured Elmina Fort on the Gold Coast and established other forts in the area. This period witnessed fierce rivalry between Europeans. The Reformation had weakened the influence of Rome and Papal Bulls were no longer an effective way of maintaining trade monopoly. However, because the commercial interests which financed these ventures were getting better organized,78 attempts were made to reduce conflict which threatened their profits and to respect the stake of the various companies all along the coast of West Africa.

From the s when most of the Europeans had staked their claims in the Caribbean and the Americas, and established gold mines and plantations, the demand for African slaves suddenly escalated.

Longman, 16 Map 4 has been removed due to copyright restrictions. It is a map of Africa circa AD showing some of the main empires, city states and towns and areas of Portuguese and Spanish influence in international trade. This European demand for slaves drove the trade and changed the political and economic as well as social configuration of sub-Saharan Africa. Arms were sold to African leaders and wars were waged to obtain slaves, several kingdoms rising to prominence as a result of their position in the slave trade.

As this brief historical background shows, and as world systems theorists, notably Herb Addo82 have pointed out, the development of mercantile and industrial capitalism in Europe was inextricably linked to international trade and in particular to the colonization of the Caribbean Islands and the Americas and the development of the Atlantic Slave trade.

They were not discrete events confined to Europe. These trading relations had a significant impact on all the groups involved in it and on the political configuration of the areas of the world in which they lived. This period marked the beginning of the creation of the modern world system characterized by increasing linkages and integration of international trade and production. The relationships between European traders, initially slave traders and later those engaged in the trade in palm oil and other commodities, the local rulers, European military personnel and missionaries as well as large groups of refugees and internally displaced persons who interacted at close quarters at different phases of the history of this very cosmopolitan city state, give us important insights into the nature and mechanisms of development of colonial rule there and in many parts of Africa.

Lagos is a cluster of islands round a peninsula, first inhabited by migrant fisherpeople from surrounding areas and was not of much strategic importance in the Niger area until the late 16th century. The earliest accounts of the settlement of Lagos indicate that the area was first settled by migrant fishing people including some from the Ijebu waterside.

Later, a group of Awori83 fleeing from war further inland in Isheri settled in Ebute-Metta an area already claimed by the Ijebu and moved on to establish the settlements of Oto and Iddo on the neighbouring island, intermarrying with the earlier inhabitants. A few of this group of migrants moved across to the larger island opposite today called Eko or Lagos Island to farm.

These Awori migrants were a large group and intermarried with the smaller groups they found in the area. The leader of the Awori who established his base at Iddo was called the Olofin and people in the area came to recognize him as the paramount ruler, especially at the time when they were attacked by the 83 Considered today as a sub-ethnic group of the Yoruba. The 16 eldest sons of the first Olofin became the Idejo?

This is how the Awori became the dominant group in the Lagos area by the 16th century, claiming first settler status and legitimizing their claims to control fishing and land rights there. As earlier noted,85 by the ? In , a Portuguese captain? Aviero - visited Benin City and this initiated the establishment of trading links with the kingdom. The rise of a state at Allada in present day Benin Republic after prompted military expeditions west by Benin in an attempt to retain its relevance in the trade with the Europeans.

Iddo was attacked and on occasion successfully repulsed these attacks The Bini87eventually established a military camp on a part of Lagos Island today known as Victoria Island and Kuramo waters. The city that grew on the island there has since been known as Eko to the indigenous inhabitants. The Bini military commanders adopted a policy of peaceful co-existence for a time, consulting with the heads of 84 The earliest written accounts of the history of Lagos were compiled by missionaries in the 19th century from oral accounts of the Chiefs and residents and have since been expanded by a number of scholars.

Later in the 17th century, the Oba of Benin appointed a viceroy to oversee the Lagos community and to exact tribute from them. This viceroy was related to both the Awori and the Benin royal houses. He took the title of Oba translated as King and the title of Olofin fell into disuse. The rise of Aja kingdom and Oyo both Yoruba to the north and west of Lagos, and the establishment of its presence by Benin empire, led to a shifting of boundaries and control over this area throughout the 17th century. However, Benin influence in Lagos was stronger than that of the other two empires in this period, probably because of the ease of water transportation.

The first group was the Idejo who, most sources agree,91 represented the original owners of the land in Lagos and therefore had power to allocate unoccupied land within their areas. Even the Oba had to request land from them. The second group was the Akarigbere - descendants of the warriors of the Benin army, which settled in Lagos and were closely associated with the ruling dynasty. The head of this class of chiefs is the 88 See Mann, ibid at Versions of oral tradition differ as to whether the Olofin was defeated in battle by these emissaries of the Oba of Benin, or whether, after one or two unsuccessful attempts to defeat him, the Binis opted for peaceful co-existence on uninhabited parts of the area, from which they could operate.

Most versions of the history of the area agree that the Binis eventually established a military camp on one of the Lagos islands? Eko - and started a dynasty which became the dominant one in Lagos. See also Cole, supra note 84 at The third group of chiefs was the Ogalade? A fourth class of chiefs in Lagos were the Abagbon or Ogagun who are described by Smith as war captains, led by the Ashogbon who with the Eletu Odibo was responsible for conducting the Ifa consultation92 which preceded the naming of a new ruler.

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The council of chiefs met regularly and independently as well as with the Oba. Apparently, the council consisted formerly of just the Akarigbere and ten Idejo chiefs. It then expanded to include 16 chiefs representing members of the four classes of chiefs. As the importance of the Kingdom of Lagos and the leadership of the Obas became critical to its defence, the authority and autonomy of the Idejo was diminished and even challenged96 although they continued to be recognized as landowners, and the principle of governorship by consent remained strong in the 92 A form of divination performed by the Yoruba to assist with decision making on all important matters of life.

The 10 referred to as being members of the early Council were probably the 10 put in charge of areas of Eko or Lagos Island which is where the Oba was based. Although some accounts state that the Olofin appointed 16 of his sons as Idejo, the 16 on the Oba? See Cole, supra note 84 at This led to a rather interesting situation in which the Oba or paramount ruler and his chiefs had no direct power over the allocation of land resources but?

The wealth accruing from coastal trade in this period no doubt aggravated these struggles. In Benin custom, the Oba is succeeded by his eldest son, whereas in many Yoruba kingdoms the eldest surviving brother is successor to the throne or the kingship rotates among ruling houses or units of the royal family. The role of divination in the selection of the Oba is held to be important, determining which ruling house which is able to present a suitable candidate, for example, of the right age should be next in line, but does not seem to have prevented the various conflicts which occurred among the Lagos ruling houses.

She notes that whilst Lagos became an important port due to its geographical location from the 16th century and its inhabitants profited from ferrying goods across the Lagoon and to the ocean, other states and kingdoms along the West African coast at which European traders first traded and built their forts were more important and handled the bulk of the trade in slaves and other goods.

However, with the expansion of the empire of Dahomey in the 18th century, and disruptions in trade at Allada and Ouidah which it caused, the trade shifted further west towards 97 Ibid at Ibid at 47 Porto Novo and Badagry, increasing trading activities from Lagos to these places.

The breakup of the Oyo Empire and the civil wars that accompanied it were an additional boost for slave trading in Lagos as many captives of war became available for the slave markets. Equally important, however, was the deliberate attempt by Lagos rulers to create an enabling environment for the foreign traders operating in the kingdom and the alliances they forged with them.

Britain was at this time the dominant 99 Mann, Slavery, supra note 7 at Constitution is used here to mean both the establishment of the kingdom as well as the governance structures, and the term imperialism is used to describe the relationship because Benin conquered and established its hegemony over the peoples living in the Lagos area to found the Kingdom of Lagos which paid homage and tribute to Benin for decades. Cole, supra note 84 at These measures were of limited efficacy until after when slavery, rather than just the trade in slaves, was abolished in all parts of the British Empire.

The Portuguese and Spanish continued the trade and took on the flags of countries not party to agreements to stop the trade. In fact, the trade is said to have intensified between and , carried out with increased ruthlessness in terms of the treatment of slaves. Disputes among factions of the ruling house of Lagos were related in part to support accorded to different groups of traders by different factions. The various chiefs thus supported candidates for the Obaship who they felt would favour, or at least not threaten, their economic activities. It was within this context that in when the reigning king of Lagos died, his brother?

The Eletu Odibo or Kingmaker, invited his uncle? Adele - who had been earlier deposed by his own brother, to take office. This uncle died within 3years and again Kosoko was sidelined in favour of Adele? The Eletu Odibo, who had blocked Kosoko? In the conflict that ensued between the two factions of the ruling house, Kosoko was defeated and fled to Ouidah? On the death of Oluwole seven years later, an uncle of Kosoko? Akitoye - was again crowned. In an effort to make peace, he invited Kosoko back from exile.

However, the conflict deepened and war broke out between the factions in which Kosoko gained the upper hand and Akitoye was forced into exile in at Abeokuta and later Badagry. From exile, Akitoye sought the support of the Egba in Abeokuta and the British to reclaim the throne.

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This pattern of depositions, exile and return occurred several times in the early 19th century. The sidelined or deposed kings sought support to return to power from neighbouring towns and kingdoms, traders whom they had favoured, as well as missionaries and European governments. All the kings of Lagos in the 19th century were heavily involved in the slave trade.

In the course of its anti slavery activities, the West African Squadron had bombarded Lagos in during the reign of Idewu Ojulari, and Domingo Martinez? Akitoye came under pressure from the missionary community in Badagry where he had sought refuge to stop the slave trade.

With the support of Abeokuta which Kosoko threatened with invasion, he agreed to sign a treaty with the British for the abolition of the slave The British first established a naval presence at Fernando Po in The Foreign Office then approved reinforcements and a major military expedition against Lagos on Christmas Eve in the same year. Kosoko escaped to Epe and Akitoye was re-installed on the throne.

On January 1 , he signed a treaty with the British for the abolition of the slave trade, promotion of legitimate trade and protection of missionaries. A British Consulate was established in Lagos shortly thereafter. After the death of Akitoye in , his son Dosunmu was hastily installed and supported by the British.

However, British consuls made a concerted effort to reconcile the warring factions of the ruling house, signing a Treaty at Epe with Kosoko in Under this agreement Kosoko became the king of Palma and Lekki the neighbouring area to the east through which he had fled to Epe on condition that he relinquish his claim to the throne of Lagos.

He and his supporters began to engage in the palm See Akitoye? See Cole, supra note 84 at and Mann, Slavery supra note 7 at However, the slave trade continued from these easterly sections of Lagos and Dosunmu was unable to control the activities of the traders. Recognizing the strategic importance of gaining a foothold in Lagos for its harbor and for the purposes of controlling trade with the interior of Nigeria, especially in the face of competition from the French, British consuls interfered increasingly in local politics.

A month later, the consul and the senior naval officer summoned the King of Lagos to a meeting on board one of their warships to inform him of the intentions of the British government. After tolerating his resistance for one month, they gave him an ultimatum and stationed the warship within firing distance of the town center.

On the 6th of August, the King, accompanied by a few chiefs, signed the Treaty of Cession. Thus it was that European merchants and the states that protected their interests, who had promoted the slave trade, sold arms and ammunition and fuelled local wars and kidnappings that led to massive destabilization and insecurity in the region for two centuries, when the demand for slaves was high, now took on the role of abolitionists and sought to depose their former partners some of who had not yet adjusted to the changing global economic climate.

At the end of the 18th century, freed slaves from London, England who had benefitted from the growing tide of opposition to the slave trade in England, joined abolitionist groups and activists who began to think and organize around a return of ex-slaves to Africa. Black loyalists who had fought on the British side in the American War of Independence were promised freedom and resettlement on land in Nova Scotia, Canada. On arrival, many of these promises of land were reneged upon and the black communities were subject to racist attacks and harsh conditions of living.

This triggered a series of petitions to London and proposals for a return to Africa. A settlement had been established by Granville Sharpe on the West African coast in in the present day Sierra Leone in pursuance of this vision of a free settlement where all peoples of all races interacted on a free and equal basis. Following the formal abolition of the slave trade in , larger groups of slaves much more recently captured in West Africa and other parts of Africa were released by the British Naval Squadron which patrolled the seas, in this new settlement which was renamed Freetown.

Freed Slave Colonies in West Africa? Cambridge University Press, This later and more numerous wave of settlers was referred to as? On their release in Freetown they clustered in groups according to place of origin or ethnicity. The influence of the initial settlers from England, North America and the West Indies, who had been Christianized much earlier and introduced to specific trades such as carpentry and masonry, was significant and the younger more recent settlers were sent to missionary schools and apprenticed into the trades, absorbing much of this dominant culture.

This group of people, uprooted from their natal communities and educated in Christian schools modeled along European lines, adopted a form of English mixed with local languages? Creole - as their lingua franca and as a result are often referred to as the? This group of immigrants often had tense relations with the indigenous communities of Sierra Leone on whose land they encroached as the settlement grew. There were many clashes and much insecurity in the area in spite of the activities of missionary organizations and the attempt by the British government in to establish a rudimentary system of administration for the area in an attempt to control the mish mash of self-governing ethnic communities living there.

Pioneer of African Nationalism, London: Large groups of them were Yoruba? From the s some of them banded together, purchased confiscated slave ships and returned as traders to various points east of Sierra Leone including Cape Coast, Accra, Badagry and Lagos. Some of them settled in the Yoruba towns of Porto Novo, Badagry, Lagos and Abeokuta keeping in touch with Sierra Leone and providing valuable information to Sierra Leone residents on events in their homeland.

The Atlantic trade and in particular the very lucrative arms and slave trade, played an important part in determining the power struggles that shaped and changed the constitution of the kingdom of Lagos and surrounding areas. A good analysis of these struggles over succession that gave the British a relatively easy foothold in Lagos is reflected in this comment by Cole: A Political and Social Analysis. Humanities Press, [Ayandele, Missionary Impact].

There are several reasons for this. First, the rapid successions to the Obaship during the early nineteenth century completely unsettled? Second, the Obas, through the wealth from the slave trade, were themselves only just establishing their authority over the other classes of chiefs. Many of the rules governing the various institutions were therefore fluid. Thus the conflicting accounts often heard about what constituted native custom, and what the origins, functions and positions of the various classes of chiefs were, may well be due to simple ignorance, a more likely explanation is that the competitors chose what myths supported their particular interests.

Cole cites figures for which put the number of? The new government of Akitoye which was consolidating its victory over Kosoko, re-allocated lands which had belonged to Kosoko? Following the cession of Lagos in , there was a renewed scramble for land on the island and to secure Crown Grants which King Docemo continued to issue liberally. Property Rights and Empire Building: They were re-assured that their rights over land were secure and indeed they were encouraged to make grants of land. However, differing processes of making the grants and differing understandings of their consequences, resulted in the shift in power that they had feared and were expressed in the land disputes that took place in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in Lagos and environs which will be discussed in the next chapter.

Equally important to the growth of? Policing this system based on ethics and trust was fraught with problems as several commentators have noted. Armed with their Crown Grants, the Saro and other landholders were thus able to use land to secure extensive credit from these firms. Hopkins, supra note at Unlike the era of the slave trade when they operated largely offshore leaving land based operations to the indigenous middlemen.

See Hopkins, ibid at The most extensive and comprehensive work on the history of modern judicial institutions in Southern Nigeria has been done by Professor Omoniyi Adewoye, and Dr T. Adewoye notes that English style courts were older institutions in Southern Nigeria than English law and that their establishment was an important part of the process of establishing colonial domination of the territory. There were also informal forums presided over by the British consul in Lagos from , prior to the formal assumption of sovereignty by the British Crown in Law and Justice in a Dependency New Jersey: Humanities Press, [Adewoye, Judicial System].

Elias, Legal System, supra note 2. For the most comprehensive account of their operations and references to sources of information see Martin Lynn,? Law and Imperial Expansion: The Niger Delta Courts of Equity, c? Judicial Agreements in Yorubaland ? The courts of equity in the Niger Delta were established to mediate in disputes between European and local traders in the coastal communities of the Niger Delta.

These courts emerged to regulate trade relations and settle trade disputes between traders of the different nations operating in the area. They were an early example of international law, relying on consensus and collaboration in resolving disputes. They were presided over by leaders of the main trading organizations in the area and imposed fines as penalties or trading embargoes on erring parties both of which required the co-operation of other traders to be effective. The courts thus acted as a pressure group on traders.

Their influence and institutionalization in the different communities of the Niger Delta depended on their acceptance by local and foreign leaders in the area who were responsible for policy making and monopolized the use of force. The Europeans in particular, needed them to enforce some sort of order in trading activities among themselves as well as between them and the indigenous traders, Adewoye,? Dr Baikie - in the context of Bonny in which indicates that they were in existence before that time.

They empowered the British Monarch to? In , by virtue of an Order in Council, the Consulate and the Courts of Equity in the Niger Delta were put on a more formal footing. This Order in Council spelt out the powers of the Consul which included re-organization of the Courts of Equity and the setting up of a machinery of administration. Governing councils were established, presided over by the consul and comprising African chiefs and European traders as members.

These councils exercised both administrative, as well as legislative and basic judicial functions. See Adewoye, Judicial System supra note at In order to increase their influence over trading rules and practices, the various European traders grouped together and sought the support of their home governments. This resulted in the appointment of representatives such as consuls and commissioners by some countries as seen above. Another strategy employed by the traders was to form cartels as a means of monopolizing the trade and excluding other European merchants and nations.

This was successfully utilized by George Goldie Taubman in when he amalgamated the four main British firms operating in the Niger area into one large company called the United Africa Company. The UAC was able to influence and manipulate local rulers who controlled the supply of goods in the area, acting initially with the military support of the British consuls in the area. In this company was incorporated as the National African Company and persuaded or intimidated some local rulers in communities in the Upper Niger area to sign treaties granting it monopolistic trading powers.

It also convened courts of its own, established a fleet of gunboats as a police force and levied customs duties on other European traders seeking to operate in the exclusive trading zones it had created for itself. The name of the company was changed to the Ibid. The Saro traders operating in the area were also squeezed out of the market by the price fixing and other unfair trade practices of the company.

Initially local forums for the administration of justice such as the courts of the local chiefs and King were dominant but once Europeans and African? The establishment of the British Naval Squadron at Fernando Po in and the appointment of Consuls thereafter, was thus a significant indicator of changing relations, although the area in which they traded was far too large to guarantee them influence without the support of indigenous groups and leaders.

See Adewoye, Judicial System, supra note at 35, and Elias, ibid at The latter gives the example of the German bombardment which affected British interests and the refusal of the German traders and Commissioner to subject themselves to the jurisdiction of a Court of Equity. Between and when major administrative re-organization removed Lagos from the Sierra Leone Colony and merged it with the Gold Coast Colony 7 main courts were constituted: The Supreme Court The Petty Debt Court The Slave Commission Court The Court of Civil and Criminal Justice The Court of Requests The Divorce Courts The Vice Admiralty Court In the first twenty years of their existence, many of the courts were short lived; subject to constant renaming and reconstitution; were convened irregularly in improvised quarters and were staffed by whatever personnel were available including merchants, surgeons and military personnel.

According to Adewoye, only three qualified barristers or solicitors sat on the bench in Lagos between and and the first fully qualified legal practitioner in Lagos started practicing in A new Supreme Court Ordinance made extensive changes to judicial Adewoye, supra note at 47; see also Alan Burns, ibid at It provided, inter alia, that the English common law, the doctrines of equity and the statutes of general application that were in force in England on July 24th should be in force within the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.

Prior to this, as Adewoye has remarked, the judicial system was based on improvisation rather than clear rules and procedures emanating from the English Legal System. The courts were staffed by available officials with a variety of backgrounds, and advocates who appeared before the courts were? The indigenous system of administration of justice was also recognized and some attempt was made to deal with the relationship between it and the new system.

All the Supreme Court Ordinances since contained a provision that: Nothing in this Ordinance shall deprive the Supreme Court of the right to observe and enforce the observance, or shall deprive any person of the benefit of any law or custom existing in the said Colony and Territories subject to its jurisdiction, such law or custom not being repugnant to natural justice, equity, and good conscience, nor incompatible either directly or by necessary implication with any enactment of the Colonial Legislature existing at the commencement of this Ordinance, or which may afterwards come into operation.

This provision is fairly typical for most of the West African territories administered by the British. In West Africa, stopping the slave trade as well as securing the well being of its citizens were the primary reasons advanced for the extension of British jurisdiction over the peoples of the area. A series of treaties were thus purportedly signed between British government representatives and local rulers in Yorubaland and the Niger Delta between and placing these areas under British protection. The Saro and Brazilian? In each town, the administration of justice was initially left to the headman Baale or the Chief with appeals being heard by the paramount Chief in the area.

Those who later settled in the Christian Mission of Abeokuta area also established a Court of Redemption to redeem slaves, and a Divorce Court in and respectively. Between and , by virtue of a series of judicial agreements, the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court was gradually extended to the whole of the Southern Protectorate of Nigeria. The Supreme Court was given exclusive jurisdiction over homicide, general criminal and civil jurisdiction over non-natives, and general jurisdiction where one of the parties was a non-native.

By virtue of Native Courts Proclamations in , and , Native Courts were established in the Southern Protectorate, comprising of local officials with the British Resident officer or his local representative sitting as an advisor or assessor. Land held under native tenure and within their locality was under their jurisdiction. The Native Courts were supervised by a Native Council in some areas which was comprised of members appointed by the District Officer and was presided over by him.

This court could invite native assessors to its aid. The Native Councils also carried out legislative and administrative functions and were therefore an important mechanism in the system of Indirect Rule. There was still much improvisation in this period and it was not until the amalgamation of Southern and Northern Nigeria in that the native courts were put on clearer and firmer footing. At that time a major judicial reorganization was carried out. There were now 3 classes of courts?

Lawyers did not appear before Provincial and Native courts and the Provincial courts continued to be closely linked to and supervised by Provincial administrators. These became the official local courts at the District and Provincial levels with their jurisdiction spelt out in terms of punishments and the monetary value of matters coming before them and remedies they could give.

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They were usually staffed by the Paramount or Head Chief sitting with his principal officers. Grade B, C and D courts had decreasing jurisdiction in terms of the monetary value of cases they could hear and the punishments they could award. Retrieved 17 January A Study of Crisis. University of Michigan Press.

One Zambia, Many Histories: Towards a History of Post-colonial Zambia. Proxy Warfare in International Politics. Lynne Rienner Publishers, Incorporated. Rhodesia and Lebanon in perspective. Warfare in Africa since Sweden and National Liberation in Southern Africa: Solidarity and assistance, — A History of Opposition in Zambia. Apartheid Power in Southern Africa. Namibia and Southern Africa: Regional Dynamics of Decolonization, Security and Democracy in Southern Africa.

University of Witwatersrand Press. Archived from the original on March 3, Retrieved 19 December Check date values in: South Africa Into Angola ed. Retrieved 7 August Landmines in Southern Africa. Kaunda and Southern Africa. Military Spending in Developing Countries.

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