The History of England From the First Invasion by the Romans to the Access of William and Mary in 16

The Bible: The long journey into British life

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His son James II reigned — , when he came of age in , continued his father's policy of weakening the great noble families, most notably taking on the powerful Black Douglas family that had come to prominence at the time of the Bruce. In , the last significant acquisition of Scottish territory occurred when James III was engaged to Margaret of Denmark , receiving the Orkney Islands and the Shetland Islands in payment of her dowry. Scotland advanced markedly in educational terms during the 15th century with the founding of the University of St Andrews in , the University of Glasgow in and the University of Aberdeen in , and with the passing of the Education Act , which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools.

The invasion was stopped decisively at the Battle of Flodden Field during which the King, many of his nobles, and a large number of ordinary troops were killed, commemorated by the song Flowers of the Forest. Once again Scotland's government lay in the hands of regents in the name of the infant James V. James V finally managed to escape from the custody of the regents in He continued his father's policy of subduing the rebellious Highlands , Western and Northern isles and the troublesome borders.

The day before his death, he was brought news of the birth of an heir: Once again, Scotland was in the hands of a regent. This took the form of border skirmishing and several English campaigns into Scotland. Mary was then sent to France at the age of five, as the intended bride of the heir to the French throne. Her mother, Marie de Guise, stayed in Scotland to look after the interests of Mary — and of France — although the Earl of Arran acted officially as regent. By , after a change of regent in England, the English withdrew from Scotland completely.

From , Marie de Guise, took over the regency, and continued to advance French interests in Scotland. French cultural influence resulted in a large influx of French vocabulary into Scots. But anti-French sentiment also grew, particularly among Protestants , who saw the English as their natural allies. In , Marie de Guise died, and soon after the Auld Alliance also ended, with the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh , which provided for the removal of French and English troops from Scotland.

The Scottish Reformation took place only days later when the Scottish Parliament abolished the Roman Catholic religion and outlawed the Mass. Despite her private religion, she did not attempt to re-impose Catholicism on her largely Protestant subjects, thus angering the chief Catholic nobles. Her six-year personal reign was marred by a series of crises, largely caused by the intrigues and rivalries of the leading nobles.

The murder of her secretary, David Riccio , was followed by that of her unpopular second husband Lord Darnley , and her abduction by and marriage to the Earl of Bothwell , who was implicated in Darnley's murder. After her defeat at the Battle of Langside in , she took refuge in England, leaving her young son in the hands of regents. In Scotland the regents fought a civil war on behalf of James VI against his mother's supporters. In England, Mary became a focal point for Catholic conspirators and was eventually tried for treason and executed on the orders of her kinswoman Elizabeth I.

During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation that created a predominantly Calvinist national Kirk, which became Presbyterian in outlook and severely reduced the powers of bishops. In the earlier part of the century, the teachings of first Martin Luther and then John Calvin began to influence Scotland, particularly through Scottish scholars, often training for the priesthood, who had visited Continental universities.

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The Lutheran preacher Patrick Hamilton was executed for heresy in St. Wishart's supporters assassinated Beaton soon after and seized St. Andrews Castle, which they held for a year before they were defeated with the help of French forces. The survivors, including chaplain John Knox , were condemned to be galley slaves in France, stoking resentment of the French and creating martyrs for the Protestant cause. Limited toleration and the influence of exiled Scots and Protestants in other countries, led to the expansion of Protestantism, with a group of lairds declaring themselves Lords of the Congregation in and representing their interests politically.

The collapse of the French alliance and English intervention in meant that a relatively small, but highly influential, group of Protestants were in a position to impose reform on the Scottish church. A confession of faith, rejecting papal jurisdiction and the mass, was adopted by Parliament in , while the young Mary, Queen of Scots, was still in France. Knox, having escaped the galleys and spent time in Geneva as a follower of Calvin, emerged as the most significant figure of the period.

The Calvinism of the reformers led by Knox resulted in a settlement that adopted a Presbyterian system and rejected most of the elaborate trappings of the medieval church. The reformed Kirk gave considerable power to local lairds, who often had control over the appointment of the clergy. There were widespread, but generally orderly outbreaks of iconoclasm.

The conquest

At this point the majority of the population was probably still Catholic in persuasion and the Kirk found it difficult to penetrate the Highlands and Islands, but began a gradual process of conversion and consolidation that, compared with reformations elsewhere, was conducted with relatively little persecution. Women shared in the religiosity of the day. The egalitarian and emotional aspects of Calvinism appealed to men and women alike.

Historian Alasdair Raffe finds that, "Men and women were thought equally likely to be among the elect Godly men valued the prayers and conversation of their female co-religionists, and this reciprocity made for loving marriages and close friendships between men and women. For the first time, laywomen gained numerous new religious roles,And took a prominent place in prayer societies.

Although James had tried to get the Scottish Church to accept some of the High Church Anglicanism of his southern kingdom, he met with limited success.

His son and successor, Charles I , took matters further, introducing an English-style Prayer Book into the Scottish church in This resulted in anger and widespread rioting. The story goes that it was initiated by a certain Jenny Geddes who threw a stool in St Giles Cathedral. In November of the same year matters were taken even further, when at a meeting of the General Assembly in Glasgow the Scottish bishops were formally expelled from the Church, which was then established on a full Presbyterian basis.

The backlash from this venture provoked a rebellion in Ireland and Charles was forced to appeal to the English Parliament for funds. Parliament's demands for reform in England eventually resulted in the English Civil War. This series of civil wars that engulfed England, Ireland and Scotland in the s and s is known to modern historians as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In England his religious policies caused similar resentment and he ruled without recourse to parliament from As the civil wars developed, the English Parliamentarians appealed to the Scots Covenanters for military aid against the King.

A Solemn League and Covenant was entered into, guaranteeing the Scottish Church settlement and promising further reform in England. An army under the Earl of Leven occupied the North of England for some time. However, not all Scots supported the Covenanter's taking arms against their King. Few Scots would follow him, but, aided by 1, Irish, Highland and Islesmen troops sent by the Irish Confederates under Alasdair MacDonald MacColla , and an instinctive genius for mobile warfare, he was stunningly successful. After a series of victories over poorly trained Covenanter militias, the lowlands were at his mercy.

However, at this high point, his army was reduced in size, as MacColla and the Highlanders preferred to continue the war in the north against the Campbells. Shortly after, what was left of his force was defeated at the Battle of Philiphaugh. Escaping to the north, Montrose attempted to continue the struggle with fresh troops; but in July his army was disbanded after the King surrendered to the Scots army at Newark, and the civil war came to an end. The following year Charles, while he was being held captive in Carisbrooke Castle, entered into an agreement with moderate Scots Presbyterians.

In this secret ' Engagement ', the Scots promised military aid in return for the King's agreement to implement Presbyterianism in England on a three-year trial basis. The execution of Charles I in was carried out in the face of objections by the Covenanter government and his son was immediately proclaimed as King Charles II in Edinburgh. Oliver Cromwell led an invasion of Scotland in , and defeated the Scottish army at Dunbar and then defeated a Scottish invasion of England at Worcester on 3 September the anniversary of his victory at Dunbar.

Cromwell emerged as the leading figure in the English government and Scotland was occupied by an English force under George Monck. The country was incorporated into the Puritan-governed Commonwealth and lost its independent church government, parliament and legal system, but gained access to English markets. However, final ratification was delayed by Cromwell's problems with his various parliaments and the union did not become the subject of an act until see Tender of Union. After the death of Cromwell and the regime's collapse, Charles II was restored in and Scotland again became an independent kingdom.

He ruled largely without reference to Parliament, through a series of commissioners. Abandoning the official church, many of the inhabitants began to attend illegal field assemblies, known as conventicles. James put Catholics in key positions in the government and attendance at conventicles was made punishable by death. He disregarded parliament, purged the Council and forced through religious toleration to Roman Catholics, alienating his Protestant subjects. It was believed that the king would be succeeded by his daughter Mary, a Protestant and the wife of William of Orange , Stadtholder of the Netherlands, but when in , James produced a male heir, James Francis Edward Stuart , it was clear that his policies would outlive him.

An invitation by seven leading Englishmen led William to land in England with 40, men, and James fled, leading to the almost bloodless " Glorious Revolution ".

The Estates issued a Claim of Right that suggested that James had forfeited the crown by his actions in contrast to England, which relied on the legal fiction of an abdication and offered it to William and Mary, which William accepted, along with limitations on royal power. However, William, who was more tolerant than the Kirk tended to be, passed acts restoring the Episcopalian clergy excluded after the Revolution.

Although William's supporters dominated the government, there remained a significant following for James, particularly in the Highlands. His cause, which became known as Jacobitism , from the Latin Jacobus for James, led to a series of risings. His forces, almost all Highlanders, defeated William's forces at the Battle of Killiecrankie in , but they took heavy losses and Dundee was slain in the fighting. Without his leadership the Jacobite army was soon defeated at the Battle of Dunkeld. The closing decade of the 17th century saw the generally favourable economic conditions that had dominated since the Restoration come to an end.

There was a slump in trade with the Baltic and France from to , caused by French protectionism and changes in the Scottish cattle trade, followed by four years of failed harvests , and , an era known as the "seven ill years". The "Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies" received a charter to raise capital through public subscription. With the dream of building a lucrative overseas colony for Scotland, the Company of Scotland invested in the Darien scheme , an ambitious plan devised by William Paterson to establish a colony on the Isthmus of Panama in the hope of establishing trade with the Far East.

Since the capital resources of the Edinburgh merchants and landholder elite were insufficient, the company appealed to middling social ranks, who responded with patriotic fervour to the call for money; the lower classes volunteered as colonists. The English investors withdrew. Returning to Edinburgh, the Company raised , pounds in a few weeks. Three small fleets with a total of 3, men eventually set out for Panama in The exercise proved a disaster. Poorly equipped; beset by incessant rain; under attack by the Spanish from nearby Cartagena ; and refused aid by the English in the West Indies , the colonists abandoned their project in Only 1, survived and only one ship managed to return to Scotland.

Scotland was a poor rural, agricultural society with a population of 1. Although Scotland lost home rule, the Union allowed it to break free of a stultifying system and opened the way for the Scottish enlightenment as well as a great expansion of trade and increase in opportunity and wealth. Edinburgh economist Adam Smith concluded in that "By the union with England, the middling and inferior ranks of people in Scotland gained a complete deliverance from the power of an aristocracy which had always before oppressed them. Scotland's transformation into a rich leader of modern industry came suddenly and unexpectedly in the next years, following its union with England in and its integration with the advanced English and imperial economies.

Glasgow , on the river Clyde, was the base for the tobacco and sugar trade with an emerging textile industry. Edinburgh was the administrative and intellectual centre where the Scottish Enlightenment was chiefly based. By the start of the 18th century, a political union between Scotland and England became politically and economically attractive, promising to open up the much larger markets of England, as well as those of the growing English Empire.

With economic stagnation since the late 17th century, which was particularly acute in ; the country depended more and more heavily on sales of cattle and linen to England, who used this to create pressure for a union. It was also a full economic union; indeed, most of its 25 articles dealt with economic arrangements for the new state known as "Great Britain". It added 45 Scots to the members of the House of Commons and 16 Scots to the members of the House of Lords, and ended the Scottish parliament.

It also replaced the Scottish systems of currency, taxation and laws regulating trade with laws made in London. Scottish law remained separate from English law, and the religious system was not changed. England had about five times the population of Scotland at the time, and about 36 times as much wealth.

Jacobitism was revived by the unpopularity of the union. However, government arrests forestalled the southern ventures. In Scotland, John Erskine, Earl of Mar , nicknamed Bobbin' John , raised the Jacobite clans but proved to be an indecisive leader and an incompetent soldier. Mar captured Perth, but let a smaller government force under the Duke of Argyll hold the Stirling plain. Part of Mar's army joined up with risings in northern England and southern Scotland, and the Jacobites fought their way into England before being defeated at the Battle of Preston , surrendering on 14 November The day before, Mar had failed to defeat Argyll at the Battle of Sheriffmuir.

At this point, James belatedly landed in Scotland, but was advised that the cause was hopeless. He fled back to France. An attempted Jacobite invasion with Spanish assistance in met with little support from the clans and ended in defeat at the Battle of Glen Shiel. In , the Jacobite rising known as The 'Forty-Five began. At the outset he was successful, taking Edinburgh [] and then defeating the only government army in Scotland at the Battle of Prestonpans.

However, it became increasingly evident that England would not support a Roman Catholic Stuart monarch. The Jacobite leadership had a crisis of confidence and they retreated to Scotland as two English armies closed in and Hanoverian troops began to return from the continent. After an unsuccessful attempt on Stirling, he retreated north towards Inverness. He was pursued by the Duke of Cumberland and gave battle with an exhausted army at Culloden on 16 April , where the Jacobite cause was crushed.

The Old Pretender died in and the Young Pretender, without legitimate issue, in When his brother, Henry, Cardinal of York , died in , the Jacobite cause was at an end. With the advent of the Union and the demise of Jacobitism, access to London and the Empire opened up very attractive career opportunities for ambitious middle-class and upper-class Scots, who seized the chance to become entrepreneurs, intellectuals, and soldiers.

As the Secretary of War told Parliament in , "I am for having always in our army as many Scottish soldiers as possible In his great Dictionary Johnson defined oats as, "a grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people. Scottish politics in the late 18th century was dominated by the Whigs , with the benign management of Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll — , who was in effect the "viceroy of Scotland" from the s until his death in Scotland generally supported the king with enthusiasm during the American Revolution. Henry Dundas — dominated political affairs in the latter part of the century.

Dundas put a brake on intellectual and social change through his ruthless manipulation of patronage in alliance with Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger , until he lost power in The main unit of local government was the parish, and since it was also part of the church, the elders imposed public humiliation for what the locals considered immoral behaviour, including fornication, drunkenness, wife beating, cursing and Sabbath breaking. The main focus was on the poor and the landlords "lairds" and gentry, and their servants, were not subject to the parish's control.

The policing system weakened after and disappeared in most places by the s. After the battle of Culloden the leaders were declared to be traitors, with Jacobite officers executed and many of the rebel soldiers shipped to the colonies as indentured servants. Parliament also banned the bearing of arms and the wearing of tartans, and limited the activities of the Episcopalian Church.

After a generation the Highlands had been transformed and the laws were no longer needed; they were mostly repealed. Historians debate whether the dramatic changes merely reflect long-term trends that were more-or-less inevitable, or whether government intervention played the decisive role in changing the goals and roles of the chiefs. The major result of these changes were the Highland Clearances , in which many of the population of the Highlands were evicted as lands were enclosed , principally so that they could be used for sheep farming.

The clearances followed patterns of agricultural change throughout Britain, but were notorious as a result of the late timing, the lack of legal protection for year-by-year tenants under Scots law , the abruptness of the change from the traditional clan system, and the brutality of some evictions. The era of the Napoleonic wars, —, brought prosperity, optimism, and economic growth to the Highlands.

The economy grew thanks to higher wages, as well as large-scale infrastructure spending such as the Caledonian Canal project. On the East Coast, farmlands were improved, and high prices for cattle brought money to the community. Service in the Army was also attractive to young men from Highlands, who sent pay home and retired there with their army pensions, but the prosperity ended after , and long-run negative factors began to undermine the economic position of the crofters.

Historian Jonathan Israel argues that by Scotland's major cities had created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions, such as universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums and masonic lodges.

The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment. A moral philosopher who produced alternatives to the ideas of Thomas Hobbes , one of his major contributions to world thought was the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words, "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers".

He and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed what he called a ' science of man ', [] which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett , Adam Ferguson , John Millar and William Robertson , all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behave in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement [] and Hume's philosophical concepts that directly influenced James Madison and thus the US Constitution and when popularised by Dugald Stewart , would be the basis of classical liberalism.

It had an immediate impact on British economic policy and in the 21st century still framed discussions on globalisation and tariffs. With tariffs with England now abolished, the potential for trade for Scottish merchants was considerable. However, Scotland in was still a poor rural, agricultural society with a population of 1.

Roman Britain

However, trade with the West Indies began to make up for the loss of the tobacco business, [] reflecting the British demand for sugar and the demand in the West Indies for herring and linen goods. Linen was Scotland's premier industry in the 18th century and formed the basis for the later cotton, jute, [] and woollen industries. Since England had woollens, this meant linen.

Encouraged and subsidised by the Board of Trustees so it could compete with German products, merchant entrepreneurs became dominant in all stages of linen manufacturing and built up the market share of Scottish linens, especially in the American colonial market. As a joint-stock company, it had the right to raise funds through the issue of promissory notes or bonds. With its bonds functioning as bank notes, the company gradually moved into the business of lending and discounting to other linen manufacturers, and in the early s banking became its main activity.

There were over branches, amounting to one office per 7, people, double the level in England, where banks were also more heavily regulated. Historians have emphasised that the flexibility and dynamism of the Scottish banking system contributed significantly to the rapid development of the economy in the 19th century. German sociologist Max Weber mentioned Scottish Presbyterianism in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism , and many scholars in recent decades argued that "this worldly asceticism" of Calvinism was integral to Scotland's rapid economic modernisation.

In the s the Presbyterian establishment purged the land of Episcopalians and heretics, and made blasphemy a capital crime. Thomas Aitkenhead, the son of an Edinburgh surgeon, aged 18, was indicted for blasphemy by order of the Privy Council for calling the New Testament "The History of the Imposter Christ"; he was hanged in The early 18th century saw the beginnings of a fragmentation of the Church of Scotland. These fractures were prompted by issues of government and patronage, but reflected a wider division between the hard-line Evangelicals and the theologically more tolerant Moderate Party.

The battle was over fears of fanaticism by the former and the promotion of Enlightenment ideas by the latter. The Patronage Act of was a major blow to the evangelicals, for it meant that local landlords could choose the minister, not the members of the congregation. The second schism in lead to the foundation of the independent Relief Church.

Long after the triumph of the Church of Scotland in the Lowlands, Highlanders and Islanders clung to an old-fashioned Christianity infused with animistic folk beliefs and practices. The remoteness of the region and the lack of a Gaelic-speaking clergy undermined the missionary efforts of the established church. The later 18th century saw some success, owing to the efforts of the SSPCK missionaries and to the disruption of traditional society. Conditions also grew worse for Catholics after the Jacobite rebellions and Catholicism was reduced to little more than a poorly run mission.

Also important was Episcopalianism, which had retained supporters through the civil wars and changes of regime in the 17th century. Since most Episcopalians had given their support to the Jacobite rebellions in the early 18th century, they also suffered a decline in fortunes. Although Scotland increasingly adopted the English language and wider cultural norms, its literature developed a distinct national identity and began to enjoy an international reputation.

Allan Ramsay — laid the foundations of a reawakening of interest in older Scottish literature, as well as leading the trend for pastoral poetry, helping to develop the Habbie stanza as a poetic form. Fingal written in was speedily translated into many European languages, and its deep appreciation of natural beauty and the melancholy tenderness of its treatment of the ancient legend did more than any single work to bring about the Romantic movement in European, and especially in German , literature, influencing Herder and Goethe. Burns, an Ayrshire poet and lyricist, is widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland and a major figure in the Romantic movement.

As well as making original compositions, Burns also collected folk songs from across Scotland, often revising or adapting them. His poem and song " Auld Lang Syne " is often sung at Hogmanay the last day of the year , and " Scots Wha Hae " served for a long time as an unofficial national anthem of the country. A legacy of the Reformation in Scotland was the aim of having a school in every parish, which was underlined by an act of the Scottish parliament in reinforced in In rural communities this obliged local landowners heritors to provide a schoolhouse and pay a schoolmaster, while ministers and local presbyteries oversaw the quality of the education.

The headmaster or "dominie" was often university educated and enjoyed high local prestige. A "democratic myth" emerged in the 19th century to the effect that many a "lad of pairts" had been able to rise up through the system to take high office and that literacy was much more widespread in Scotland than in neighbouring states, particularly England. Kirk schools were not free, attendance was not compulsory and they generally imparted only basic literacy such as the ability to read the Bible. Poor children, starting at age 7, were done by age 8 or 9; the majority were finished by age 11 or The result was widespread basic reading ability; since there was an extra fee for writing, half the people never learned to write.

Scots were not significantly better educated than the English and other contemporary nations. A few talented poor boys did go to university, but usually they were helped by aristocratic or gentry sponsors. Most of them became poorly paid teachers or ministers, and none became important figures in the Scottish Enlightenment or the Industrial Revolution. By the 18th century there were five universities in Scotland, at Edinburgh , Glasgow , St. Originally oriented to clerical and legal training, after the religious and political upheavals of the 17th century they recovered with a lecture-based curriculum that was able to embrace economics and science, offering a high quality liberal education to the sons of the nobility and gentry.

It helped the universities to become major centres of medical education and to put Scotland at the forefront of Enlightenment thinking. Scotland's transformation into a rich leader of modern industry came suddenly and unexpectedly.

Estonia sinks

At first the leading industry, based in the west, was the spinning and weaving of cotton. In , the American Civil War suddenly cut off the supplies of raw cotton and the industry never recovered. Thanks to its many entrepreneurs and engineers, and its large stock of easily mined coal, Scotland became a world centre for engineering, shipbuilding, and locomotive construction, with steel replacing iron after The Scottish Reform Act increased the number of Scottish MPs and significantly widened the franchise to include more of the middle classes.

From this point until the end of the century, the Whigs and after their successors the Liberal Party , managed to gain a majority of the Westminster Parliamentary seats for Scotland, although these were often outnumbered by the much larger number of English and Welsh Conservatives. From about textiles became the most important industry in the west of Scotland, especially the spinning and weaving of cotton, which flourished until in the American Civil War cut off the supplies of raw cotton.

The invention of the hot blast for smelting iron revolutionised the Scottish iron industry. As a result, Scotland became a centre for engineering, shipbuilding and the production of locomotives. Toward the end of the 19th century, steel production largely replaced iron production. By , there were 1,, coal miners in Scotland. Britain was the world leader in the construction of railways, and their use to expand trade and coal supplies.

William III

The first successful locomotive-powered line in Scotland, between Monkland and Kirkintilloch , opened in For example, railways opened the London market to Scottish beef and milk. They enabled the Aberdeen Angus to become a cattle breed of worldwide reputation. There were several reasons for this. Sign up now to learn about This Day in History straight from your inbox. The communists briefly captured the base before being driven out by air and artillery strikes. They then besieged the base, which was only lifted after a relief column, On this day in , President Lyndon B.

Johnson, who was coming under increasing criticism for sending American men to fight and die in Vietnam, bestows the Congressional Medal of Honor on Sgt. On May 21, , the year-old Cabrillo was not the first to search for a water passage across the North American continent, and he On September 28, , jazz trumpet legend Miles Davis dies in a California hospital at the age of On this day in , a Liberty Loan parade in Philadelphia prompts a huge outbreak of the flu epidemic in the city.

By the time the epidemic ended, an estimated 30 million people were dead worldwide. Influenza is a highly contagious virus that attacks the respiratory system and Theriault, the leader of the most bizarre and violent cult in Canadian history, often physically abused his followers. Obsessed with anatomy and medicine, Theriault performed crude intestinal surgery on Boislard One day after concluding their summit meeting in Washington, D. Eisenhower offer their opinions as to the importance and meaning of their talks.

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