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If a skier has high demands on himself or herself and the actual resources available are lower than the demands, the skier can experience a high load of stress that can lead to emotions of anxiety [ 20 ]. Because of the high risk of injury in competitive alpine skiing [ 14 , 15 ], it is important that the coaches work with their skiers to develop strategies that help the athletes to manage skiing without getting injured. Physical trait aggressivity The authors implemented an inventory for the soccer players who developed coping strategies, resulting in decreased injury rates [ 8 ]. Jay Eacker rated a book it was amazing.
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We will not remove any content for bad language alone, or being critical of a particular book. The severity of the consequential stress response, caused by increased stress reactivity of individuals, is a proposed mechanism behind the increased risk of injury [ 2 ]. A comprehensive model of the relationship between stress and athletic injuries has to consider personality characteristics [ 2 ].
The result showed a significant connection between stress and injury risk [ 7 ]. For instance, individuals with high anxiety and mistrust may evaluate more situations as stressful and therefore experience eminent stress responses contrary to individuals with a reversed outline, which might lead to an increased risk of injuries [ 8 ]. Relationships between personality traits to risk factors in sports, stress and coping with stress have been especially studied.
Less emphasis to the role of other personality traits and variables of sport injury risk, such as mistrust, adventure seeking and cognitive trait anxiety has been investigated.
For one athlete an injury can be seen as a failure and for another athlete as liberation. Because of the high risk of injury in competitive alpine skiing [ 14 , 15 ], it is important that the coaches work with their skiers to develop strategies that help the athletes to manage skiing without getting injured. Gender differences have been less studied. Taylor investigated psychological factors such as self-confidence and somatic and cognitive anxiety in athletes of different sport disciplines [ 16 ].
He found these factors to be important in terms of how the athletes performed within their sport disciplines, and that these relationships appear to be uniform among several different sports. The three psychological variables were predictive of sports performance. The interaction indicated that a specific balance of moderate levels of self-confidence and somatic and cognitive anxiety were necessary for optimal performance.
However, it differed in regards to if the sport discipline was characterized by a mixture of motor skills of different levels. No significant differences were noted within each gender in terms of the relationship between psychological factors and performance, although differences between genders may exist [ 16 , 17 ].
Males scored higher on standard measures of self-esteem than females, but the difference was small [ 17 ]. Females showed higher degree of stress before the activity than males. Athletes often have high, even perfectionistic demands on themselves and their performance [ 19 ]. If a skier has high demands on himself or herself and the actual resources available are lower than the demands, the skier can experience a high load of stress that can lead to emotions of anxiety [ 20 ]. Stress can prevent an athlete to successfully return to sport and also generally increase the risk of injury or reinjury [ 21 ].
A review [ 6 ] reported a positive relationship between life stress and sport injury in 27 out of 30 studies. It has also been proposed that athletes who start competing after a severe injury may experience increased competition anxiety [ 22 ]. Stress factors identified by coaches among injured athletes include fear of re-injury, worry of failure or not reaching the same competitive level, and social pressure to return to sport [ 22 ]. An earlier study has shown [ 15 ] that it is likely that alpine skiers get injured during their academic period at a Swedish ski high school.
Most of their injuries are represented by knee injuries. In another study interviewing world cup skiers and snowborders, injuries were recorded [ 14 ]. The main aim of the present study was to investigate possible relationships between personality characteristics and injury rate.
Another aim was to find out if gender could be a significant factor in these relationships. The skiers were given both verbal and written information and thereafter they gave their consent to participate in the study. Prior to the study the skiers filled out a demographic questionnaire about previous injuries. Swedish universities Scales of Personality SSP was completed by a total of alpine ski high school students in Sweden [ 23 ]. Out of skiers were included males, females in the analysis. Excluded were skiers out of the who completed the SSP. The reason for being excluded was that they had not completed their studies at any of the Swedish ski high schools.
The skiers ranged in age from 16 to 20 years mean Personality characteristics were measured using the SSP, which is a self-report personality inventory developed to study a number of different personality traits [ 23 ]. SSP contains 91 items divided into 13 subscales.
In each subscale seven items were represented. The subscales are measuring personality traits that can be related to three factors: Intraclass correlations ICC were 0. The skiers answered the SSP at the start of the study. If an injury occurred, the skier filled out a standardized injury report regarding injury localization, type of injury, and if the skier has had any previous injuries.
A researcher was in regular telephone contact with the coaches to ensure that injury and the number of days absent from skiing were reported. When the data collection was completed. The skiers were divided into the following three groups: A severe injury has been defined as absent from sport more than 28 days [ 24 ]. According to Fuller et al. The effect size corresponds to a mean difference in a personality scale of 4. All variables were analyzed using descriptive statistics frequencies, mean and standard deviation.
The raw mean scores were transformed to a T-scale, which by definition has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10, for males and females separately. Thus, the mean score for a single scale is set to 50 for males and 50 for females with a standard deviation of 10 in both groups. If there were no significant interaction effects between injury level and gender, the analysis were run as a one-way analysis of variance.
Moreover, if age was significantly related to a personality variable, age was included as a covariate in a twoway analysis of covariance CovAnova. Post hoc tests were performed using the Tukey HSD test controlling for multiple comparisons. None of the differences between injury levels interacted with gender implying that the differences were valid for both genders, and a one-way analysis of variance were run for all analysis of differences between injury levels.
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None of the other differences attained a significant level. Thus, these analyses were run as two-way CovAnova with age as a covariate. No significant differences were found between these two personality and injury level Table 2. Differences in the personality profile were found between alpine skiers and the normal controls. Alpine skiers showed higher values in Stress Susceptibility, Adventure Seeking, and lower in Mistrust when compared to normal controls Figure 1 and Table 2.
The aim of the present study was to evaluate personality characteristics in comparison with injury rate. Between three groups of alpine skiers skiers without any injury, skiers with one severe injury, skiers with two or more severe injuries only one significant group difference was found. The skiers without any injuries were more prone to stress susceptibility.
Unexpectedly, no other variable showed a significant difference. Interestingly enough, the groups did not differ in adventure seeking, i. Stress can be both positive and negative for the outcome. A certain degree of stress can improve the concentration in order to perform at the highest level during a competition [ 26 ]. Positive stress can be a possible explanation for why the group without severe injuries showed higher scores on stress susceptibility compared to the group who had experienced severe injuries. Positive stress might help the alpine skiers to load up and be alert and energetic.
The uninjured group showed increased susceptibility to stress, which is similar to the result of a study by Levi [ 26 ]. Also, Rogers and Landers have reported stress susceptibility to be a strong predictor affecting the injury outcome. Competitive young skiers might experience stress in situations when they are not getting enough support from their environment. For young people years of age who are engaged in competitive sports, it is well established that the most important role models during the psychosocial development, consists of coaches, peers and parents [ 27 ].
In many cases, an injury occurred as a result of a series of more or less verifiable elements. The individual assessment of a more stressful situation may increase the risk of injury, and thereby influence various psychological factors [ 6 ]. However, higher sensitivity to stress may help skiers to be more careful in risk situations. For each group; no injury, one severe injury and two or more severe injuries. When it comes to personality differences regarding gender, researchers [ 28 ] have not reported any differences between males and females in terms of how they function as human beings when looked at personality traits.
In the present study, gender differences, although not significant, were found regarding the personality traits; detachment, social desirability, mistrust and psychic trait anxiety. Males showed lower average rate in these attributes compared to females in each group.
Female skiers showed a higher average rate in low assertiveness in the group with more than one severe injuries compared to their male counterparts. To the best of our knowledge this has not been reported in earlier studies.
Both males and females showed similar average rates regarding stress susceptibility. Males have a higher tendency to behave aggressively, while females have a higher tendency to be more anxious and depressed. Competitive alpine skiing requires focus, risk taking and many years of training with high motivation. A life as a successful alpine skier is well structured and the demands on the skier are high, which means that the skier must sometimes push the limits and take risky decisions on the slopes [ 29 ].